This book describes and explains the methods by which three related ores and recyclables are made into high purity metals and chemicals, for materials processing. It focuses on present day processes and future developments rather than historical processes.
Nickel, cobalt and platinum group metals are key elements for materials processing. They occur together in one book because they (i) map together on the periodic table (ii) occur together in many ores and (iii) are natural partners for further materials processing and materials manufacturing. They all are, for example, important catalysts – with platinum group metals being especially important for reducing car and truck emissions. Stainless steels and CoNiFe airplane engine super alloys are examples of practical usage.
The product emphasises a sequential, building-block approach to the subject gained through the author’s previous writings (particularly Extractive Metallurgy of Copper in four editions) and extensive experience. Due to the multiple metals involved and because each metal originates in several types of ore – e.g. tropical ores and arctic ores this necessitates a multi-contributor work drawing from multiple networks and both engineering and science.
1. 10.1. Introduction 2. 10.2. Alternatives to Mixed Sulfide Precipitation 3. 10.3. Downstream Processing 4. 10.4. Summary 5. Chapter 11. High-Temperature Sulfuric Acid Leaching of Laterite Ores 6. 11.1. Chapter Objectives 7. 11.2. Sulfuric Acid Leaching 8. 11.3. Chemistry 9. 11.4. Autoclave Operation 10. 11.5. Process Appraisal 11. 11.6. Summary 12. Chapter 12. Precipitation Of Nickel−Cobalt Sulfide 13. 12.1. Reasons for Making a Mixed-Sulfide Precipitate 14. 12.2. Flowsheet 15. 12.3. Autoclave Exit Slurry Neutralization 16. 12.4. Solution Reneutralization 17. 12.5. Removal of Zinc and Copper From Solution by Sulfide Precipitation 18. 12.6. Precipitation of Nickel−Cobalt Sulfide 19. 12.7. Product Destination 20. 12.8. Appraisal 21. 12.9. Summary 22. Chapter 13. Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Ores 23. 13.1. Nickel Sulfide Ores 24. 13.2. Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Ores 25. 13.3. Hydrometallurgical Alternatives to Matte Smelting 26. 13.4. Voisey's Bay Process for Leaching Nickel Concentrates 27. 13.5. Heap Leaching of Nickel Sulfide Ore 28. 13.6. Summary 29. Chapter 14. Production of Nickel Concentrates from Sulfide Ores 30. 14.1. The Advantages of Grinding and Concentration 31. 14.2. Crushing and Grinding 32. 14.3. Comminution Steps 33. 14.4. Control of Particle Size 34. 14.5. Recent Developments 35. 14.6. Summary 36. Chapter 15. Production of Nickel Concentrate from Ground Sulfide Ore 37. 15.1. Need for Concentration 38. 15.2. Principles of Froth Flotation 39. 15.3. Flotation Cells 40. 15.4. Flotation Chemicals 41. 15.5. Specific Flotation Procedures for Pentlandite Ores 42. 15.6. Flotation Products 43. 15.7. Operation and Control 44. 15.8. Recent Developments 45. 15.9. Summary 46. Chapter 16. Separation of Chalcopyrite from Pentlandite by Flotation 47. 16.1. Chapter Objectives 48. 16.2. Separation of Chalcopyrite and Pentlandite 49. 16.3. Industrial Practice 50. 16.4. Grinding 51. 16.5. Summary 52. Chapter 17. Smelting of Nickel Sulfide Concentrates by Roasting and Electric Furnace Smelting 53. 17.1. Principles of Roasting and Smelting 54. 17.2. Chemistry of Roasting 55. 17.3. Electric Furnace Smelting 56. 17.4. Industrial Electric Furnaces 57. 17.5. Summary 58. Chapter 18. Flash Smelting of Nickel Sulfide Concentrates 59. 18.1. Objective of the Process – Nickel Enrichment 60. 18.2. Advantages and Disadvantages 61. 18.3. Extent of Oxidation 62. 18.4. Chemistry 63. 18.5. Industrial Flash Smelting 64. 18.6. Outotec-Type Flash Furnace 65. 18.7. Inco-Type Flash Furnace 66. 18.8. Peripheral Equipment 67. 18.9. Operation and Control of the Flash Furnace 68. 18.10. Appraisal 69. 18.11. Recent Trends 70. 18.12. Summary 71. Chapter 19. Converting – Final Oxidation of Iron From Molten Matte 72. 19.1. Starting and Finishing Compositions 73. 19.2. Chemistry of Converting 74. 19.3. Principles of Converting 75. 19.4. Behavior of Other Metals 76. 19.5. Choice of Final Iron Content 77. 19.6. End-Point Determination 78. 19.7. Capture of Sulfur Dioxide 79. 19.8. Tuyeres and Oxygen Enrichment 80. 19.9. Nitrogen-Shrouded Blast Injection 81. 19.10. Converter Control 82. 19.11. Alternatives to Peirce-Smith Converting 83. 19.12. Direct to Low-Iron Matte Flash Smelting 84. 19.13. Summary 85. Chapter 20. Sulfur Dioxide Capture in Sulfuric Acid and Other Products 86. 20.1. Nickel Extraction Offgases 87. 20.2. Production of Sulfuric Acid from Roaster and Flash Furnace Offgases 88. 20.3. Gas Cooling, Cleaning, and Drying 89. 20.4. Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfur Trioxide 90. 20.5. Catalyst for the Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide 91. 20.6. Making Acid from Sulfur Trioxide 92. 20.7. Double-Contact Acid-Making 93. 20.8. Acid Plant Products 94. 20.9. Environmental Performance of the Nickel Industry 95. 20.10. Making Sulfuric Acid for the Leaching of Nickel Laterite 96. 20.11. Summary 97. Chapter 21. Slow Cooling and Solidification of Converter Matte 98. 21.1. Solidification and Slow Cooling Process 99. 21.2. Industrial Matte Casting, Solidification and Slow Cooling 100. 21.3. Concentrate Destinations 101. 21.4. Summary 102. Chapter 22. Carbonyl Refining of Impure Nickel Metal 103. 22.1. Chemistry of the Process 104. 22.2. Industrial Ambient Pressure Carbonylation 105. 22.3. Decomposition of Nickel Carbonyl 106. 22.4. High-Pressure Carbonyl Refining 107. 22.5. Appraisal 108. 22.6. Summary 109. Chapter 23. Hydrometallurgical Production of High-Purity Nickel and Cobalt 110. 23.1. Refining of Sulfide Precipitates from Laterite Leaching Operations 111. 23.2. Refining of Nickel Mattes from Smelting Operations 112. 23.3. Appraisal 113. 23.4. Summary 114. Chapter 24. Leaching of Nickel Sulfide Mattes and Precipitates 115. 24.1. Chlorine Leaching 116. 24.2. Oxygen–Ammonia Leaching 117. 24.3. Leaching by Sulfuric Acid Solutions using Oxygen 118. 24.4. Appraisal 119. 24.5. Summary 120. Chapter 25. Separation of Nickel and Cobalt by Solvent Extraction 121. 25.1. Chapter Objectives 122. 25.2. Principles of Solvent Extraction 123. 25.3. Chloride Solvent Extraction 124. 25.4. Solvent Extraction in Sulfate Solutions 125. 25.5. Solvent Extraction in Ammoniacal Solutions 126. 25.6. Solvent Extraction in Sulfate and Chloride Solutions 127. 25.7. Diluents 128. 25.8. Washing and Scrubbing the Organic 129. 25.9. Impurity Removal 130. 25.10. Appraisal 131. 25.11. Summary 132. Chapter 26. Electrowinning of Nickel from Purified Nickel Solutions 133. 26.1. Objectives of this Chapter 134. 26.2. Electrowinning Nickel from Chloride Electrolyte 135. 26.3. Electrowinning Nickel from Sulfate Solutions 136. 26.4. New Developments in Nickel Electrowinning 137. 26.5. Other Electrolytic Nickel Processes 138. 26.6. Appraisal 139. 26.7. Summary 140. Chapter 27. Hydrogen Reduction of Nickel from Ammoniacal Sulfate Solutions 141. 27.1. Process Chemistry 142. 27.2. Industrial Applications 143. 27.3. Industrial Production of Nickel Powder 144. 27.4. Appraisal 145. 27.5. Summary 146. Chapter 28. Cobalt – Occurrence, Production, Use and Price 147. 28.1. Occurrence and Extraction 148. 28.2. Recycling of Cobalt 149. 28.3. Uses of Cobalt 150. 28.4. Global Mine Production 151. 28.5. Price 152. 28.6. Summary 153. Chapter 29. Extraction of Cobalt from Nickel Laterite and Sulfide Ores 154. 29.1. Cobalt Extraction from Nickel Laterite Ore 155. 29.2. Refining of Cobalt 156. 29.3. Extraction of Cobalt from Nickel Sulfide Ores 157. 29.4. Summary 158. Chapter 30. Production of Cobalt from the Copper–Cobalt Ores of the Central African Copperbelt 159. 30.1. Typical Ore Deposit 160. 30.2. Mining 161. 30.3. Extraction of Cobalt and Copper from Weathered Ore 162. 30.4. Exploiting the Cobalt–Copper Sulfide Ore Layer 163. 30.5. Summary 164. Chapter 31. Platinum-Group Metals, Production, Use and Extraction Costs 165. 31.1. Uses of the Platinum-Group Elements 166. 31.2. Mining of Platinum-Group Elements 167. 31.3. Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals 168. 31.4. Prices 169. 31.5. Costs of Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals 170. 31.6. Summary 171. Chapter 32. Overview of the Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals 172. Chapter 33. Production of Flotation Concentrates Containing Platinum-Group Metals 173. 33.1. Ores and Concentrates 174. 33.2. Ores Containing Platinum-Group Metals 175. 33.3. South African Ores Containing Platinum-Group Metals 176. 33.4. Production of Flotation Concentrate from The Merensky Reef 177. 33.5. UG2 Ores and the Problem of Chromite 178. 33.6. Flotation Reagents and Conditions 179. 33.7. Improving Recovery of Platinum-Group Elements to Concentrate 180. 33.8. Gravity Separation 181. 33.9. Recent Developments 182. 33.10. Summary 183. Chapter 34. Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals from Russian Ores 184. 34.1. Nickel Copper and Platinum Ores from Norilsk-Talnakh 185. 34.2. Russian Production 186. 34.3. Recent Developments 187. 34.4. Summary 188. Chapter 35. Smelting and Converting of Sulfide Concentrates Containing Platinum-Group Metals 189. 35.1. Major Process Steps 190. 35.2. Concentrate Drying 191. 35.3. Smelting the Concentrates 192. 35.4. Converting the Furnace Matte 193. 35.5. Recent Developments in Smelting and Converting in The Platinum Industry 194. 35.6. Summary 195. Chapter 36. Separation of the Platinum-Group Metals from Base Metal Sulfides, and the Refining of Nickel, Copper and Cobalt 196. 36.1. Overview of the Refining of the Platinum-Group Metals 197. 36.2. Objectives of This Chapter 198. 36.3. Base Metal Refineries Where Nickel is Produced as Nickel Sulfate 199. 36.4. Base Metal Refineries Where Nickel is Produced as Powder by Hydrogen Reduction 200. 36.5. Base Metals Refinery Where Nickel is Produced as Nickel Cathode 201. 36.6. Appraisal 202. 36.7. Summary 203. Chapter 37. Refining of the Platinum-Group Metals 204. 37.1. Objectives of this Chapter 205. 37.2. Concentrate Composition 206. 37.3. Separation Techniques Used in the Refining of the Platinum-Group Metals 207. 37.4. Refining Efficiency 208. 37.5. Classification of Refining Processes 209. 37.6. Lonmin's Western Platinum Refinery 210. 37.7. Krastsvetmet's Refinery at Krasnoyarsk 211. 37.8. Appraisal of the Precipitation Processes 212. 37.9. The Johnson Matthey/Anglo American Platinum Process 213. 37.10. The Acton Refinery Process 214. 37.11. Appraisal of the Solvent-Extraction Processes 215. 37.12. Impala Platinum's Ion-Exchange Process 216. 37.13. Appraisal of the Ion-Exchange Processes 217. 37.14. Summary 218. Chapter 38. Recycling of Nickel, Cobalt and Platinum-Group Metals 219. 38.1. Recycling of Platinum-Group Metals from Automobile Catalyst 220. 38.2. Recycling of Nickel in Stainless Steel 221. 38.3. Recycling of Cobalt 222. 38.4. Summary 223. Appendix A. Ferronickel Smelting of Non-Tropical Laterite Ores 224. Appendix B. Caron Process for Processing Nickel Laterites 225. Appendix C. Flash Cooling of Autoclaves 226. Appendix D. Counter-Current Decantation of Leaching Slurries 227. Appendix E. Recovering Nickel-, Copper-, Cobalt- and Platinum-Group Elements from Slags 228. Appendix F. Electrorefining of High-Purity Nickel from Cast Impure Ni Alloy and Ni Matte Anodes 229. Appendix G. Top Blown Rotary Converter 230. Appendix H. Nickel Carbonylation Free Energies and Equilibrium Constants 231. Index
This book describes and explains the methods by which three related ores and recyclables are made into high purity metals and chemicals, for materials processing. It focuses on present day processes and future developments rather than historical processes.
Nickel, cobalt and platinum group metals are key elements for materials processing. They occur together in one book because they (i) map together on the periodic table (ii) occur together in many ores and (iii) are natural partners for further materials processing and materials manufacturing. They all are, for example, important catalysts – with platinum group metals being especially important for reducing car and truck emissions. Stainless steels and CoNiFe airplane engine super alloys are examples of practical usage.
The product emphasises a sequential, building-block approach to the subject gained through the author’s previous writings (particularly Extractive Metallurgy of Copper in four editions) and extensive experience. Due to the multiple metals involved and because each metal originates in several types of ore – e.g. tropical ores and arctic ores this necessitates a multi-contributor work drawing from multiple networks and both engineering and science.
1. 10.1. Introduction 2. 10.2. Alternatives to Mixed Sulfide Precipitation 3. 10.3. Downstream Processing 4. 10.4. Summary 5. Chapter 11. High-Temperature Sulfuric Acid Leaching of Laterite Ores 6. 11.1. Chapter Objectives 7. 11.2. Sulfuric Acid Leaching 8. 11.3. Chemistry 9. 11.4. Autoclave Operation 10. 11.5. Process Appraisal 11. 11.6. Summary 12. Chapter 12. Precipitation Of Nickel−Cobalt Sulfide 13. 12.1. Reasons for Making a Mixed-Sulfide Precipitate 14. 12.2. Flowsheet 15. 12.3. Autoclave Exit Slurry Neutralization 16. 12.4. Solution Reneutralization 17. 12.5. Removal of Zinc and Copper From Solution by Sulfide Precipitation 18. 12.6. Precipitation of Nickel−Cobalt Sulfide 19. 12.7. Product Destination 20. 12.8. Appraisal 21. 12.9. Summary 22. Chapter 13. Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Ores 23. 13.1. Nickel Sulfide Ores 24. 13.2. Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Ores 25. 13.3. Hydrometallurgical Alternatives to Matte Smelting 26. 13.4. Voisey's Bay Process for Leaching Nickel Concentrates 27. 13.5. Heap Leaching of Nickel Sulfide Ore 28. 13.6. Summary 29. Chapter 14. Production of Nickel Concentrates from Sulfide Ores 30. 14.1. The Advantages of Grinding and Concentration 31. 14.2. Crushing and Grinding 32. 14.3. Comminution Steps 33. 14.4. Control of Particle Size 34. 14.5. Recent Developments 35. 14.6. Summary 36. Chapter 15. Production of Nickel Concentrate from Ground Sulfide Ore 37. 15.1. Need for Concentration 38. 15.2. Principles of Froth Flotation 39. 15.3. Flotation Cells 40. 15.4. Flotation Chemicals 41. 15.5. Specific Flotation Procedures for Pentlandite Ores 42. 15.6. Flotation Products 43. 15.7. Operation and Control 44. 15.8. Recent Developments 45. 15.9. Summary 46. Chapter 16. Separation of Chalcopyrite from Pentlandite by Flotation 47. 16.1. Chapter Objectives 48. 16.2. Separation of Chalcopyrite and Pentlandite 49. 16.3. Industrial Practice 50. 16.4. Grinding 51. 16.5. Summary 52. Chapter 17. Smelting of Nickel Sulfide Concentrates by Roasting and Electric Furnace Smelting 53. 17.1. Principles of Roasting and Smelting 54. 17.2. Chemistry of Roasting 55. 17.3. Electric Furnace Smelting 56. 17.4. Industrial Electric Furnaces 57. 17.5. Summary 58. Chapter 18. Flash Smelting of Nickel Sulfide Concentrates 59. 18.1. Objective of the Process – Nickel Enrichment 60. 18.2. Advantages and Disadvantages 61. 18.3. Extent of Oxidation 62. 18.4. Chemistry 63. 18.5. Industrial Flash Smelting 64. 18.6. Outotec-Type Flash Furnace 65. 18.7. Inco-Type Flash Furnace 66. 18.8. Peripheral Equipment 67. 18.9. Operation and Control of the Flash Furnace 68. 18.10. Appraisal 69. 18.11. Recent Trends 70. 18.12. Summary 71. Chapter 19. Converting – Final Oxidation of Iron From Molten Matte 72. 19.1. Starting and Finishing Compositions 73. 19.2. Chemistry of Converting 74. 19.3. Principles of Converting 75. 19.4. Behavior of Other Metals 76. 19.5. Choice of Final Iron Content 77. 19.6. End-Point Determination 78. 19.7. Capture of Sulfur Dioxide 79. 19.8. Tuyeres and Oxygen Enrichment 80. 19.9. Nitrogen-Shrouded Blast Injection 81. 19.10. Converter Control 82. 19.11. Alternatives to Peirce-Smith Converting 83. 19.12. Direct to Low-Iron Matte Flash Smelting 84. 19.13. Summary 85. Chapter 20. Sulfur Dioxide Capture in Sulfuric Acid and Other Products 86. 20.1. Nickel Extraction Offgases 87. 20.2. Production of Sulfuric Acid from Roaster and Flash Furnace Offgases 88. 20.3. Gas Cooling, Cleaning, and Drying 89. 20.4. Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfur Trioxide 90. 20.5. Catalyst for the Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide 91. 20.6. Making Acid from Sulfur Trioxide 92. 20.7. Double-Contact Acid-Making 93. 20.8. Acid Plant Products 94. 20.9. Environmental Performance of the Nickel Industry 95. 20.10. Making Sulfuric Acid for the Leaching of Nickel Laterite 96. 20.11. Summary 97. Chapter 21. Slow Cooling and Solidification of Converter Matte 98. 21.1. Solidification and Slow Cooling Process 99. 21.2. Industrial Matte Casting, Solidification and Slow Cooling 100. 21.3. Concentrate Destinations 101. 21.4. Summary 102. Chapter 22. Carbonyl Refining of Impure Nickel Metal 103. 22.1. Chemistry of the Process 104. 22.2. Industrial Ambient Pressure Carbonylation 105. 22.3. Decomposition of Nickel Carbonyl 106. 22.4. High-Pressure Carbonyl Refining 107. 22.5. Appraisal 108. 22.6. Summary 109. Chapter 23. Hydrometallurgical Production of High-Purity Nickel and Cobalt 110. 23.1. Refining of Sulfide Precipitates from Laterite Leaching Operations 111. 23.2. Refining of Nickel Mattes from Smelting Operations 112. 23.3. Appraisal 113. 23.4. Summary 114. Chapter 24. Leaching of Nickel Sulfide Mattes and Precipitates 115. 24.1. Chlorine Leaching 116. 24.2. Oxygen–Ammonia Leaching 117. 24.3. Leaching by Sulfuric Acid Solutions using Oxygen 118. 24.4. Appraisal 119. 24.5. Summary 120. Chapter 25. Separation of Nickel and Cobalt by Solvent Extraction 121. 25.1. Chapter Objectives 122. 25.2. Principles of Solvent Extraction 123. 25.3. Chloride Solvent Extraction 124. 25.4. Solvent Extraction in Sulfate Solutions 125. 25.5. Solvent Extraction in Ammoniacal Solutions 126. 25.6. Solvent Extraction in Sulfate and Chloride Solutions 127. 25.7. Diluents 128. 25.8. Washing and Scrubbing the Organic 129. 25.9. Impurity Removal 130. 25.10. Appraisal 131. 25.11. Summary 132. Chapter 26. Electrowinning of Nickel from Purified Nickel Solutions 133. 26.1. Objectives of this Chapter 134. 26.2. Electrowinning Nickel from Chloride Electrolyte 135. 26.3. Electrowinning Nickel from Sulfate Solutions 136. 26.4. New Developments in Nickel Electrowinning 137. 26.5. Other Electrolytic Nickel Processes 138. 26.6. Appraisal 139. 26.7. Summary 140. Chapter 27. Hydrogen Reduction of Nickel from Ammoniacal Sulfate Solutions 141. 27.1. Process Chemistry 142. 27.2. Industrial Applications 143. 27.3. Industrial Production of Nickel Powder 144. 27.4. Appraisal 145. 27.5. Summary 146. Chapter 28. Cobalt – Occurrence, Production, Use and Price 147. 28.1. Occurrence and Extraction 148. 28.2. Recycling of Cobalt 149. 28.3. Uses of Cobalt 150. 28.4. Global Mine Production 151. 28.5. Price 152. 28.6. Summary 153. Chapter 29. Extraction of Cobalt from Nickel Laterite and Sulfide Ores 154. 29.1. Cobalt Extraction from Nickel Laterite Ore 155. 29.2. Refining of Cobalt 156. 29.3. Extraction of Cobalt from Nickel Sulfide Ores 157. 29.4. Summary 158. Chapter 30. Production of Cobalt from the Copper–Cobalt Ores of the Central African Copperbelt 159. 30.1. Typical Ore Deposit 160. 30.2. Mining 161. 30.3. Extraction of Cobalt and Copper from Weathered Ore 162. 30.4. Exploiting the Cobalt–Copper Sulfide Ore Layer 163. 30.5. Summary 164. Chapter 31. Platinum-Group Metals, Production, Use and Extraction Costs 165. 31.1. Uses of the Platinum-Group Elements 166. 31.2. Mining of Platinum-Group Elements 167. 31.3. Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals 168. 31.4. Prices 169. 31.5. Costs of Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals 170. 31.6. Summary 171. Chapter 32. Overview of the Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals 172. Chapter 33. Production of Flotation Concentrates Containing Platinum-Group Metals 173. 33.1. Ores and Concentrates 174. 33.2. Ores Containing Platinum-Group Metals 175. 33.3. South African Ores Containing Platinum-Group Metals 176. 33.4. Production of Flotation Concentrate from The Merensky Reef 177. 33.5. UG2 Ores and the Problem of Chromite 178. 33.6. Flotation Reagents and Conditions 179. 33.7. Improving Recovery of Platinum-Group Elements to Concentrate 180. 33.8. Gravity Separation 181. 33.9. Recent Developments 182. 33.10. Summary 183. Chapter 34. Extraction of Platinum-Group Metals from Russian Ores 184. 34.1. Nickel Copper and Platinum Ores from Norilsk-Talnakh 185. 34.2. Russian Production 186. 34.3. Recent Developments 187. 34.4. Summary 188. Chapter 35. Smelting and Converting of Sulfide Concentrates Containing Platinum-Group Metals 189. 35.1. Major Process Steps 190. 35.2. Concentrate Drying 191. 35.3. Smelting the Concentrates 192. 35.4. Converting the Furnace Matte 193. 35.5. Recent Developments in Smelting and Converting in The Platinum Industry 194. 35.6. Summary 195. Chapter 36. Separation of the Platinum-Group Metals from Base Metal Sulfides, and the Refining of Nickel, Copper and Cobalt 196. 36.1. Overview of the Refining of the Platinum-Group Metals 197. 36.2. Objectives of This Chapter 198. 36.3. Base Metal Refineries Where Nickel is Produced as Nickel Sulfate 199. 36.4. Base Metal Refineries Where Nickel is Produced as Powder by Hydrogen Reduction 200. 36.5. Base Metals Refinery Where Nickel is Produced as Nickel Cathode 201. 36.6. Appraisal 202. 36.7. Summary 203. Chapter 37. Refining of the Platinum-Group Metals 204. 37.1. Objectives of this Chapter 205. 37.2. Concentrate Composition 206. 37.3. Separation Techniques Used in the Refining of the Platinum-Group Metals 207. 37.4. Refining Efficiency 208. 37.5. Classification of Refining Processes 209. 37.6. Lonmin's Western Platinum Refinery 210. 37.7. Krastsvetmet's Refinery at Krasnoyarsk 211. 37.8. Appraisal of the Precipitation Processes 212. 37.9. The Johnson Matthey/Anglo American Platinum Process 213. 37.10. The Acton Refinery Process 214. 37.11. Appraisal of the Solvent-Extraction Processes 215. 37.12. Impala Platinum's Ion-Exchange Process 216. 37.13. Appraisal of the Ion-Exchange Processes 217. 37.14. Summary 218. Chapter 38. Recycling of Nickel, Cobalt and Platinum-Group Metals 219. 38.1. Recycling of Platinum-Group Metals from Automobile Catalyst 220. 38.2. Recycling of Nickel in Stainless Steel 221. 38.3. Recycling of Cobalt 222. 38.4. Summary 223. Appendix A. Ferronickel Smelting of Non-Tropical Laterite Ores 224. Appendix B. Caron Process for Processing Nickel Laterites 225. Appendix C. Flash Cooling of Autoclaves 226. Appendix D. Counter-Current Decantation of Leaching Slurries 227. Appendix E. Recovering Nickel-, Copper-, Cobalt- and Platinum-Group Elements from Slags 228. Appendix F. Electrorefining of High-Purity Nickel from Cast Impure Ni Alloy and Ni Matte Anodes 229. Appendix G. Top Blown Rotary Converter 230. Appendix H. Nickel Carbonylation Free Energies and Equilibrium Constants 231. Index
