Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases

1. 113. Introduction to Eye Infections - p. 1428 2. 114. Microbial Conjunctivitis - p. 1432 3. 115. Microbial Keratitis - p. 1443 4. 116. Endophthalmitis - p. 1458 5. 117. Infectious Causes of Uveitis - p. 1467 6. 118. Periocular Infections - p. 1477 7. 119. Viral Hepatitis - p. 1484 8. 120. Human Immunodeficiency Viruses - p. 1489 9. 121. Global Perspectives on Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome - p. 1501 10. 122. Epidemiology and Prevention of AIDS and HIV Infection, Including Preexposure Prophylaxis and HIV Vaccine Development - p. 1516 11. HIV and AIDS Surveillance in the United States - p. 1516 12. HIV Infection and Aids in Adults - p. 1517 13. HIV/AIDS in Children - p. 1523 14. Modes of Transmission - p. 1523 15. HIV Infection and AIDS Outside the United States - p. 1527 16. HIV-2 - p. 1527 17. Prevention of HIV Infection - p. 1528 18. Counseling and HIV Antigen/Antibody Testing - p. 1532 19. Vaccines for HIV Type 1 Infection - p. 1532 20. Summary - p. 1535 21. 123. Diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection - p. 1537 22. Background and Perspective - p. 1538 23. Terminology and Performance Characteristics - p. 1544 24. Specific Laboratory Methods for Detection of HIV Infection - p. 1545 25. Techniques to Detect HIV Antigens - p. 1546 26. Combination Assays: Fourth-Generation HIV Antigen-Antibody Assays - p. 1546 27. False-Positive and False-Negative Results in Serologic Screening Tests for HIV - p. 1548 28. Nonserologic Techniques to Screen for HIV - p. 1550 29. HIV Supplemental and Confirmatory Assays - p. 1551 30. Western Blotting - p. 1551 31. Immunofluorescence - p. 1551 32. Virologic Techniques to Detect HIV Infection - p. 1551 33. Diagnostic Algorithms and Practical Application of HIV Detection Assays - p. 1552 34. Practical Guide to HIV Diagnosis - p. 1555 35. Specific Circumstances and Special Populations - p. 1555 36. Regulatory Issues - p. 1560 37. Conclusion - p. 1561 38. Acknowledgments - p. 1561 39. 124. The Immunology of HIV-1 Infection, Mechanisms of Viral Persistence, and Prospects for Cure - p. 1562 40. HIV-1–Specific Immune Responses - p. 1562 41. Virologic Factors in Disease Progression - p. 1566 42. Vaccines - p. 1566 43. Prospect for a Cure - p. 1566 44. Summary - p. 1576 45. 125. General Clinical Manifestations of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection (Including Acute Retroviral Syndrome and Oral, Cutaneous, Renal, Ocular, Metabolic, and Cardiac Diseases) - p. 1578 46. History - p. 1578 47. Natural History of HIV Infection - p. 1579 48. Classification of HIV Infection - p. 1581 49. Clinical Manifestations - p. 1581 50. 126. Pulmonary Manifestations of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection - p. 1595 51. 127. Gastrointestinal, Hepatobiliary, and Pancreatic Manifestations of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection - p. 1604 52. 128. Neurologic Diseases Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and Opportunistic Infections - p. 1610 53. Principal Neurologic Manifestations of HIV Type 1 Infection - p. 1610 54. Cognitive and Motor Syndromes - p. 1612 55. Central Nervous System Mass Lesions - p. 1614 56. Spinal Syndrome - p. 1620 57. Peripheral Nervous System Syndromes - p. 1621 58. Musculoskeletal Syndromes - p. 1624 59. Seizures - p. 1624 60. Temporal Trends and Aging in Neurologic Manifestations of HIV Infection - p. 1625 61. 129. Pediatric Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection - p. 1628 62. 130. Antiretroviral Therapy for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection - p. 1637 63. Antiretroviral Agents - p. 1637 64. Fostemsavir - p. 1654 65. Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy - p. 1654 66. Laboratory Testing During Antiretroviral Therapy - p. 1656 67. Changing Therapy - p. 1657 68. Special Circumstances - p. 1658 69. Conclusions and Future Directions - p. 1658 70. 131. Management of Opportunistic Infections Associated With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection - p. 1659 71. Immunologic Monitoring - p. 1660 72. Spectrum of Opportunistic Pathogens - p. 1660 73. Infections Due to Pathogens that are not Opportunistic - p. 1661 74. Management of Antiretroviral Therapy for Patients with Acute Opportunistic Infection - p. 1661 75. Drug-Drug Interactions - p. 1661 76. Prevention of Opportunistic Infections - p. 1662 77. Management of Specific Opportunistic Infections - p. 1662 78. Mycobacterium Species Infection - p. 1679 79. 132. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Virology - p. 1684 80. 133. Global Perspective and Epidemiology of COVID-19 - p. 1695 81. 134. Immunology and Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 - p. 1707 82. 135. Clinical Manifestations of COVID-19 in Adults and Children - p. 1723 83. Scope of Symptoms From COVID-19 in Adults - p. 1723 84. The Asymptomatic Fraction - p. 1724 85. COVID-19 Illness Course - p. 1724 86. Persistent Sars-COV-2 Infection - p. 1724 87. COVID-19 Severity Spectrum and Infection Fatality Rate - p. 1725 88. Respiratory Manifestations of COVID-19 - p. 1726 89. Cardiac Manifestations of COVID-19 - p. 1727 90. Neurologic and Psychiatric Manifestations of COVID-19 - p. 1729 91. Renal Manifestations of COVID-19 - p. 1730 92. Gastrointestinal and Hepatobiliary Manifestations of COVID-19 - p. 1731 93. Hematologic Manifestations of COVID-19 - p. 1731 94. Dermatologic and Rheumatologic Manifestations of COVID-19 - p. 1731 95. Co-occurring Infections in People with COVID-19 - p. 1732 96. Post-Acute COVID Syndrome - p. 1733 97. Special Populations: Pregnancy - p. 1734 98. Special Populations: People with HIV - p. 1734 99. Special Populations: Organ Transplant Recipients - p. 1734 100. Special Populations: Infants and Children - p. 1734 101. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) - p. 1736 102. 136. Treatment and Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) - p. 1740 103. Vaccines - p. 1740 104. Passive Immunotherapy - p. 1748 105. Antivirals - p. 1749 106. Immune Modulators - p. 1752 107. Anticoagulants - p. 1754 108. 137. Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome - p. 1756 109. Definition and Clinical Manifestations - p. 1756 110. History - p. 1756 111. Specific Infectious Agents Linked to ME/CFS - p. 1757 112. Epidemiology - p. 1758 113. Pathogenesis - p. 1759 114. Diagnosis - p. 1761 115. Comorbid Conditions - p. 1761 116. Treatment - p. 1761 117. Prognosis - p. 1763 118. Prevention - p. 1763 119. Summary - p. 1763 120. VOLUME 2 - p. 1764.e9 121. Infectious Diseases and Their Etiologic Agents - p. 1764.e9 122. 138. Biology of Viruses and Viral Diseases - p. 1765 123. History - p. 1765 124. Virus Structure and Classification - p. 1766 125. Virus-Cell Interactions - p. 1767 126. Antiviral Drugs (also see Chapters 47–51Chapter 47Chapter 48Chapter 49Chapter 51) - p. 1770 127. Virus-Host Interactions - p. 1771 128. Viral Virulence Determinants - p. 1774 129. Host Responses to Infection - p. 1774 130. Acknowledgments - p. 1776 131. 139. Orthopoxviruses: Vaccinia (Smallpox Vaccine), Variola (Smallpox), Mpox, and Cowpox - p. 1778 132. 140. Other Poxviruses That Infect Humans: Parapoxviruses (Including Orf Virus), Molluscum Contagiosum, and Yatapoxviruses - p. 1789 133. 141. Introduction to Herpesviridae - p. 1793 134. 142. Herpes Simplex Virus - p. 1799 135. Description of the Virus - p. 1799 136. Epidemiology - p. 1801 137. Transmission - p. 1802 138. Pathogenesis - p. 1803 139. Spectrum of Diseases Caused by Herpes Simplex Virus - p. 1805 140. Orofacial Herpes Simplex Virus Infection - p. 1805 141. Genital Herpes Simplex Virus Infection - p. 1806 142. Recurrent Mucocutaneous Herpes Simplex Virus Infections - p. 1808 143. Frequency of Reactivation and Recurrence - p. 1809 144. Herpetic Whitlow - p. 1809 145. Herpes Gladiatorum - p. 1809 146. Eye Infections - p. 1809 147. Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis - p. 1809 148. Visceral and Pulmonary Herpes Simplex Virus Infections - p. 1810 149. Herpes Simplex Virus Lymphadenitis - p. 1810 150. Genital HSV Infection in People Living With HIV Infection - p. 1810 151. HSV Infections in Immunocompromised Hosts Not Infected With HIV - p. 1811 152. Neonatal Herpes - p. 1812 153. Herpes Simplex Virus Infection in Pregnancy - p. 1812 154. Diagnosis of Active Herpes Simplex Virus Infections - p. 1814 155. Diagnosis of Established Herpes Simplex Virus Infections - p. 1814 156. Overview of Therapies for Herpes Simplex Virus Infections - p. 1814 157. Counseling and Prevention - p. 1817 158. 143. Chickenpox and Herpes Zoster (Varicella-Zoster Virus) - p. 1820 159. 144. Cytomegalovirus - p. 1828 160. Clinical Manifestations - p. 1831 161. Diagnosis of HCMV Infections - p. 1836 162. Therapy of HCMV Infections (see also Chapter 49) - p. 1838 163. 145. Epstein-Barr Virus (Infectious Mononucleosis, Epstein-Barr Virus–Associated Malignant Diseases, and Other Diseases) - p. 1844 164. History - p. 1844 165. Description of Epstein-Barr Virus - p. 1845 166. Epidemiology - p. 1846 167. Pathogenesis - p. 1847 168. Clinical Manifestations - p. 1848 169. Laboratory Diagnosis - p. 1856 170. Differential Diagnosis of Infectious Mononucleosis - p. 1858 171. Therapy - p. 1859 172. Prevention - p. 1860 173. 146. Human Herpesvirus Types 6 and 7 (Exanthem Subitum) - p. 1862 174. 147. Kaposi Sarcoma–Associated Herpesvirus (Human Herpesvirus 8) - p. 1868 175. 148. Herpes B Virus - p. 1875 176. 149. Adenoviruses - p. 1879 177. 150. Papillomaviruses - p. 1887 178. Virology - p. 1887 179. Epidemiology - p. 1888 180. Pathogenesis - p. 1890 181. Clinical Manifestations - p. 1892 182. Diagnosis - p. 1894 183. Therapy - p. 1895 184. Prevention and Vaccination - p. 1898 185. 151. JC, BK, and Other Polyomaviruses: Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy, BK Nephropathy, and Merkel Cell Carcinoma - p. 1902 186. 152. Hepatitis B Virus - p. 1913 187. Overview - p. 1913 188. Natural History and Pathogenesis of Disease - p. 1917 189. Epidemiology of Hepatitis B - p. 1920 190. Routes of Transmission - p. 1921 191. Clinical Manifestations and Prognosis - p. 1921 192. Clinical Manifestations and Natural History in Special Hosts - p. 1925 193. Screening and Diagnosis of HBV Infection - p. 1926 194. Management of Hepatitis B - p. 1927 195. Management in Special Populations - p. 1931 196. Other Management Issues in Chronic Hepatitis B - p. 1932 197. Prevention of Hepatitis B Virus Infection - p. 1933 198. Hepatitis B Virus Cure - p. 1936 199. 153. Hepatitis D Virus - p. 1938 200. 154. Human Parvoviruses, Including Parvovirus B19, Human Bocaviruses, and Adeno-Associated Viruses (AAVs) - p. 1943 201. 155. Orthoreoviruses and Orbiviruses - p. 1951 202. 156. Coltiviruses (Colorado Tick Fever Virus) and Seadornaviruses - p. 1955 203. 157. Rotaviruses - p. 1958 204. History and Overview - p. 1958 205. Viral Structure and Replication - p. 1958 206. Clinical Manifestations - p. 1961 207. Pathogenesis - p. 1962 208. Serology and Classification - p. 1963 209. Epidemiology - p. 1964 210. Immunity - p. 1965 211. Diagnosis - p. 1966 212. Therapy - p. 1967 213. Immunization - p. 1968 214. Acknowledgments - p. 1970 215. 158. Alphaviruses - p. 1972 216. 159. Rubella Virus (German Measles) - p. 1983 217. 160. Flaviviruses: (Dengue, Yellow Fever, Japanese Encephalitis, West Nile Encephalitis, Usutu Encephalitis, St. Louis Encephalitis, Tick-Borne Encephalitis, Powassan Encephalitis, Kyasanur Forest Disease, Alkhurma Hemorrhagic Fever, Zika) - p. 1991 218. History - p. 1992 219. Pathogens - p. 1994 220. Epidemiology - p. 1995 221. Pathogenesis - p. 2001 222. Clinical Manifestations - p. 2004 223. Laboratory Diagnosis - p. 2009 224. Prevention and Therapy - p. 2010 225. Other Flavivirus Infections - p. 2014 226. Acknowledgments - p. 2015 227. 161. Hepatitis C - p. 2017 228. Non-A, Non-B Viral Hepatitis and Hepatitis C - p. 2018 229. Hepatitis C Virus - p. 2018 230. Natural History and Pathogenesis - p. 2024 231. Clinical Manifestations of Hepatitis C Virus Infection - p. 2030 232. Diagnosis Laboratory Assessment of Hepatitis C Virus Infection - p. 2032 233. Epidemiology of Hepatitis C - p. 2035 234. Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C - p. 2037 235. Prevention - p. 2046 236. Hepatitis C Virus Elimination - p. 2047 237. Acknowledgments - p. 2049 238. 162. Coronaviruses, Including Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) - p. 2051 239. 163. Parainfluenza Viruses - p. 2061 240. 164. Mumps Virus - p. 2067 241. 165. Respiratory Syncytial Virus - p. 2074 242. History - p. 2074 243. Viral Structure and Characteristics - p. 2074 244. Laboratory Properties and Animal Models - p. 2075 245. Epidemiology - p. 2075 246. Prevalence and Incidence - p. 2076 247. Pathogenesis - p. 2077 248. Immunity and Pathogenesis of Disease - p. 2077 249. Maternally Derived Immunity - p. 2078 250. Innate Immunity - p. 2078 251. Adaptive Immunity - p. 2078 252. Clinical Manifestations - p. 2079 253. Acute Complications - p. 2079 254. 166. Human Metapneumovirus - p. 2085 255. 167. Measles Virus (Rubeola) - p. 2092 256. 168. Zoonotic Paramyxoviruses: Nipah, Hendra, and Pararubulaviruses - p. 2098 257. 169. Vesicular Stomatitis Virus and Related Vesiculoviruses (Chandipura Virus) - p. 2106 258. 170. Rabies (Rhabdoviruses) - p. 2109 259. 171. Marburg and Ebola Virus Diseases - p. 2120 260. 172. Influenza Viruses, Including Avian Influenza and Swine Influenza - p. 2126 261. History - p. 2126 262. The Viruses - p. 2126 263. Epidemiology and Disease Effects - p. 2128 264. Antigenic Variation - p. 2131 265. Clinical Findings - p. 2134 266. Pathogenesis - p. 2135 267. Host Response - p. 2137 268. Diagnosis - p. 2139 269. Vaccines - p. 2140 270. 173. Bunyavirus Infections: Hantavirus Syndromes, La Crosse Encephalitis, Rift Valley Fever, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever, and Others - p. 2152 271. 174. Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus, Lassa Virus, Lujo Virus, and the South American Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses (Arenaviruses) - p. 2161 272. 175. Human T-Lymphotropic Virus - p. 2169 273. Structure and Molecular Organization - p. 2170 274. Laboratory Detection - p. 2171 275. Immunology of HTLV Infection - p. 2172 276. Serologic Epidemiology - p. 2173 277. Molecular Epidemiology - p. 2175 278. Routes of Transmission - p. 2177 279. Clinical Manifestations of HTLV Infections - p. 2179 280. Prevention - p. 2183 281. Conclusion - p. 2183 282. Acknowledgments - p. 2184 283. 176. Introduction to the Human Enteroviruses and Parechoviruses - p. 2185 284. 177. Poliovirus - p. 2192 285. 178. Coxsackieviruses, Echoviruses, and Numbered Enteroviruses (EV-D68, EV-D70, EV-A71) - p. 2199 286. 179. The Human Parechoviruses - p. 2210 287. 180. Hepatitis A Virus - p. 2215 288. History - p. 2215 289. Classification and Physicochemical and Biologic Properties of Hepatitis A Virus - p. 2216 290. Epidemiology - p. 2219 291. Pathogenesis - p. 2225 292. Manifestations - p. 2225 293. Therapy and General Management - p. 2226 294. Laboratory Diagnosis - p. 2226 295. Immunity - p. 2227 296. Prevention - p. 2227 297. Recommendations for Prevention - p. 2229 298. Acknowledgments - p. 2232 299. 181. Rhinovirus - p. 2233 300. 182. Noroviruses and Sapoviruses (Caliciviruses) - p. 2239 301. 183. Astroviruses and Picobirnaviruses - p. 2246 302. 184. Hepatitis E Virus - p. 2250 303. 185. Prions and Prion Diseases of the Central Nervous System (Transmissible Neurodegenerative Diseases) - p. 2257 304. 186. Chlamydia trachomatis (Urogenital Infections and Trachoma) - p. 2270 305. Epidemiology - p. 2271 306. Chlamydial Taxonomy And Biology - p. 2271 307. Antigenic and Genetic Diversity - p. 2274 308. Pathogenesis - p. 2275 309. Immunity and Vaccines - p. 2276 310. Laboratory Diagnosis - p. 2277 311. Clinical Manifestations and Treatment - p. 2279 312. Prevention Strategies - p. 2289 313. Acknowledgment - p. 2291 314. 187. Psittacosis (Due to Chlamydia psittaci) - p. 2293 315. 188. Chlamydia pneumoniae - p. 2296 316. 189. Mycoplasmoides (Mycoplasma) pneumoniae - p. 2305 317. 190. Genital Mycoplasmas: Mycoplasma genitalium, Mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma Species - p. 2313 318. 191. Introduction to Rickettsioses, Ehrlichioses, and Anaplasmoses - p. 2317 319. 192. Rickettsia rickettsii and Other Spotted Fever Group Rickettsiae (Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever and Other Spotted Fevers)a[AU4] - p. 2322 320. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever - p. 2322 321. Other Tick-Borne Spotted Fever Group Rickettisoses - p. 2328 322. Other Tickborne Spotted Fevers (Moderate Severity) - p. 2328 323. Other Tickborne Spotted Fevers (Mild Severity) - p. 2329 324. Mite-Borne Spotted Fever (Rickettsialpox) - p. 2330 325. Flea-Borne Spotted Fever - p. 2331 326. Diagnosis of Other Spotted Fevers - p. 2331 327. Treatment of Other Spotted Fevers - p. 2331 328. 193. Coxiella burnetii (Q Fever) - p. 2333 329. 194. Rickettsia prowazekii (Epidemic or Louse-Borne Typhus) - p. 2343 330. 195. Rickettsia typhi (Murine Typhus) - p. 2348 331. 196. Orientia tsutsugamushi (Scrub Typhus) - p. 2353 332. 197. Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Other Anaplasmataceae - p. 2358 333. 198. Introduction to Bacteria and Bacterial Diseases - p. 2367 334. 199. Staphylococcus aureus - p. 2371 335. The Microorganism - p. 2373 336. Pathogenesis - p. 2380 337. Antibiotic Resistance - p. 2388 338. Alternative Treatments - p. 2395 339. Clinical Aspects and Epidemiology - p. 2397 340. Clinical Syndromes - p. 2399 341. Superantigens and Toxinic Diseases - p. 2399 342. Pyogenic Infections - p. 2401 343. Acknowledgment - p. 2411 344. 200. Staphylococcus epidermidis and Other Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci - p. 2413 345. Microbiology - p. 2413 346. Laboratory Identification - p. 2413 347. Ecology and Symbiosis with the Human Host - p. 2414 348. Antibiotic Resistance - p. 2415 349. Population Biology - p. 2415 350. Pathogenesis - p. 2415 351. Epidemiology and Clinical Syndromes - p. 2417 352. Patient Populations at Increased Risk of Infection with Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci - p. 2422 353. Non–Staphylococcus Epidermidis Species of Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci - p. 2423 354. Other Species of Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci - p. 2424 355. Novel Therapeutic Options for Infections Due to Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci - p. 2424 356. 201. Classification of Streptococci - p. 2425 357. 202. Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus) - p. 2428 358. History - p. 2428 359. Description of the Pathogen - p. 2429 360. Streptococcal Pharyngitis - p. 2431 361. Streptococcal Pyoderma - p. 2436 362. Invasive Streptococcal Infections of Skin and Soft Tissues - p. 2437 363. Bacteremia - p. 2444 364. Other Streptococcal Infections - p. 2444 365. 203. Nonsuppurative Poststreptococcal Sequelae: Rheumatic Fever and Glomerulonephritis - p. 2446 366. 204. Streptococcus pneumoniae - p. 2457 367. History - p. 2457 368. Microbiology - p. 2458 369. Epidemiology - p. 2459 370. Pathogenetic Mechanisms - p. 2460 371. Factors That Predispose to Pneumococcal Infection - p. 2463 372. Treatment of Pneumococcal Infection - p. 2467 373. Prevalence of Resistance - p. 2468 374. Therapy - p. 2468 375. Prevention - p. 2469 376. 205. Enterococcus Species, Streptococcus gallolyticus Group, and Leuconostoc Species - p. 2474 377. 206. Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococci) - p. 2487 378. 207. Viridans Streptococci, Nutritionally Variant Streptococci, and Groups C and G Streptococci - p. 2495 379. 208. Streptococcus anginosus Group - p. 2503 380. 209. Corynebacterium diphtheriae (Diphtheria) - p. 2508 381. 210. Other Coryneform Bacteria and Rhodococci - p. 2515 382. Coryneform Bacteria Other than Corynebacterium Diphtheriae - p. 2515 383. Rhodococci - p. 2522 384. 211. Listeria monocytogenes - p. 2527 385. 212. Bacillus anthracis (Anthrax) - p. 2534 386. Epidemiology - p. 2535 387. Microbiology - p. 2536 388. Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis - p. 2538 389. Therapy of all Forms of Anthrax - p. 2544 390. Prevention - p. 2548 391. Anthrax as an Agent of Bioterrorism - p. 2548 392. Anthrax Countermeasures - p. 2552 393. 213. Bacillus Species and Related Genera Other Than Bacillus anthracis - p. 2557 394. 214. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae - p. 2562 395. 215. Whipple Disease - p. 2565 396. 216. Neisseria meningitidis - p. 2572 397. Definition and History - p. 2573 398. Microbiology - p. 2573 399. Biology and Pathogenesis - p. 2573 400. Epidemiology - p. 2578 401. Clinical Manifestations and Pathophysiology - p. 2581 402. Complement Deficiency and Meningococcal Disease (See Chapter 9) - p. 2583 403. Diagnosis - p. 2586 404. Treatment - p. 2586 405. Prevention - p. 2589 406. 217. Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Gonorrhea) - p. 2596 407. 218. Moraxella catarrhalis, Kingella, and Other Gram-Negative Cocci - p. 2616 408. 219. Vibrio cholerae - p. 2625 409. 220. Other Pathogenic Vibrios - p. 2634 410. 221. Campylobacter jejuni and Related Species - p. 2639 411. 222. Helicobacter pylori and Other Gastric Helicobacter Species - p. 2649 412. 223. Enterobacterales (Enterobacteriaceae) - p. 2658 413. General Properties - p. 2658 414. Specific Organisms - p. 2662 415. Acknowledgments - p. 2675 416. 224. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Other Pseudomonas Species - p. 2677 417. 225. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Burkholderia cepacia Complex - p. 2692 418. 226. Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei: Melioidosis and Glanders - p. 2698 419. 227. Acinetobacter Species - p. 2710 420. 228. Salmonella Species - p. 2717 421. 229. Bacillary Dysentery: Shigella and Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli - p. 2729 422. 230. Haemophilus Species, Including H. influenzae and H. ducreyi (Chancroid) - p. 2735 423. 231. Brucellosis (Brucella Species) - p. 2744 424. 232. Francisella tularensis (Tularemia) - p. 2750 425. History - p. 2750 426. Microbiology - p. 2751 427. Epidemiology - p. 2752 428. Pathogenesis - p. 2754 429. Clinical Manifestations - p. 2755 430. Complications and Outcome - p. 2758 431. Diagnosis - p. 2758 432. Therapy - p. 2759 433. Prevention - p. 2761 434. Acknowledgments - p. 2762 435. Disclaimer - p. 2762 436. 233. Pasteurella Species - p. 2764 437. 234. Plague (Yersinia pestis) - p. 2770 438. 235. Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis - p. 2779 439. 236. Bordetella pertussis - p. 2784 440. 237. Rat-Bite Fever: Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus - p. 2795 441. 238. Legionnaires’ Disease and Pontiac Fever - p. 2799 442. Introduction and History - p. 2799 443. The Etiologic Agent - p. 2799 444. 239. Capnocytophaga Species - p. 2812 445. 240. Bartonella, Including Cat-Scratch Disease - p. 2819 446. Background and Classification of Bartonella Species - p. 2820 447. Epidemiology of the Common Human-Pathogenic Bartonella Species - p. 2820 448. Clinical Manifestations of the Common Human Pathogenic Bartonella Species in the Immune Competent Host: B. Henselae, B. Quintana, and B. Bacilliformis (See Table 240.2) - p. 2823 449. Cellular and Molecular Pathogenesis Associated with Bartonella Infections - p. 2833 450. Laboratory Diagnosis of Bartonella Infections - p. 2834 451. Treatment and Prevention of Bartonella Infections - p. 2837 452. 241. Klebsiella granulomatis (Donovanosis, Granuloma Inguinale) - p. 2840 453. 242. Other Gram-Negative and Gram-Variable Bacilli - p. 2843 454. Glucose Fermenters - p. 2843 455. Glucose Nonfermenters or Weak Fermenters - p. 2852 456. Acknowledgments - p. 2859 457. 243. Syphilis (Treponema pallidum) - p. 2861 458. History - p. 2862 459. Etiology - p. 2863 460. Epidemiology - p. 2865 461. Pathogenesis - p. 2867 462. Pathologic Features - p. 2868 463. Natural Course of Untreated Syphilis - p. 2870 464. Clinical Manifestations - p. 2871 465. Laboratory Diagnosis - p. 2877 466. Therapy and Response - p. 2883 467. Jarisch-Herxheimer Reaction - p. 2886 468. Immunity and Vaccine Development - p. 2891 469. Acknowledgments - p. 2891 470. 244. Endemic Treponematoses - p. 2893 471. 245. Leptospira Species (Leptospirosis) - p. 2898 472. 246. Relapsing Fever Caused by Borrelia Species - p. 2905 473. 247. Lyme Disease (Lyme Borreliosis) Due to Borrelia burgdorferi - p. 2913 474. 248. Anaerobic Infections: General Concepts - p. 2925 475. 249. Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile Infection - p. 2938 476. Historical Overview - p. 2938 477. Pathogenesis - p. 2939 478. Epidemiology - p. 2941 479. Clinical and Pathologic Manifestations - p. 2945 480. Diagnosis - p. 2945 481. Treatment - p. 2947 482. Conclusions - p. 2952 483. 250. Tetanus (Clostridium tetani) - p. 2954 484. 251. Botulism (Clostridium botulinum) - p. 2961 485. Chapter 252. Diseases Caused by Clostridium - p. 2967 486. 253. Bacteroides, Prevotella, Porphyromonas, and Fusobacterium Species (and Other Medically Important Anaerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli) - p. 2973 487. 254. Anaerobic Cocci and Anaerobic Gram-Positive Nonsporulating Bacilli - p. 2981 488. 255. Mycobacterium tuberculosis - p. 2989 489. History - p. 2990 490. Microbiology - p. 2990 491. Epidemiology - p. 2994 492. Immunology - p. 2997 493. Testing for Latent Tuberculosis Infection - p. 2998 494. Pathogenesis - p. 3000 495. Pulmonary Tuberculosis - p. 3002 496. Therapy - p. 3005 497. Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis - p. 3014 498. Post-Tuberculosis Complications - p. 3022 499. 256. Leprosy (Mycobacterium leprae) - p. 3026 500. 257. Mycobacterium avium Complex - p. 3039 501. Epidemiology - p. 3039 502. Pathogen: Classification and Microbiology - p. 3041 503. Clinical Manifestations - p. 3042 504. Diagnosis - p. 3044 505. Treatment and Prevention - p. 3045 506. Acknowledgments - p. 3050 507. 258. Infections Caused by Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Other Than Mycobacterium avium Complex - p. 3053 508. 259. Nocardia Species - p. 3061 509. 260. Agents of Actinomycosis - p. 3073 510. 261. Introduction to Mycoses - p. 3084 511. 262. Candida Species - p. 3089 512. 263. Aspergillus Species - p. 3105 513. Mycology - p. 3105 514. Epidemiology - p. 3108 515. Pathogenicity and Host Defenses - p. 3108 516. Clinical Presentation - p. 3110 517. Diagnosis and Antifungal Resistance - p. 3113 518. Therapy (Table 263.4) - p. 3115 519. Prevention and Prophylaxis - p. 3117 520. 264. Agents of Mucormycosis and Entomophthoramycosis - p. 3119 521. 265. Sporothrix schenckii - p. 3133 522. 266. Chromoblastomycosis - p. 3139 523. 267. Mycetoma - p. 3143 524. 268. Cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii) - p. 3148 525. History - p. 3148 526. Mycology - p. 3149 527. Ecology - p. 3151 528. Epidemiology - p. 3151 529. Pathogenicity - p. 3153 530. Host Responses - p. 3154 531. Pathogenesis - p. 3155 532. Clinical Manifestations - p. 3155 533. Laboratory Diagnosis - p. 3159 534. Management - p. 3161 535. Prognosis - p. 3163 536. Prevention (Preemptive and Prophylaxis Strategies) - p. 3164 537. 269. Histoplasma capsulatum (Histoplasmosis) - p. 3166 538. 270. Blastomycosis - p. 3181 539. 271. Coccidioidomycosis (Coccidioides Species) - p. 3195 540. 272. Dermatophytosis (Ringworm) and Other Superficial Mycoses - p. 3207 541. 273. Paracoccidioidomycosis - p. 3217 542. 274. Uncommon Fungi and Related Species - p. 3230 543. Scedosporium Apiospermum Species Complex - p. 3231 544. Lomentospora (Formerly Scedosporium) Prolificans - p. 3232 545. Dark-Walled Fungi (Phaeohyphomycosis) - p. 3232 546. Fusarium Species - p. 3235 547. Other Opportunistic Molds - p. 3236 548. Talaromyces (Formerly Penicillium) Marneffei - p. 3236 549. Emergomyces Species - p. 3237 550. Agents of Adiaspiromycosis (Emmonsia Species) - p. 3237 551. Paracoccidiodes (Lacazia) Loboi - p. 3237 552. Trichosporon Species - p. 3238 553. Malassezia Furfur - p. 3238 554. Other Uncommon Yeasts - p. 3239 555. Prototheca Species - p. 3239 556. Pythium Species - p. 3239 557. Rhinosporidium Seeberi - p. 3240 558. Summary - p. 3240 559. 275. Pneumocystis Species - p. 3245 560. Pathogen - p. 3245 561. Epidemiology - p. 3247 562. Immunopathogenesis and Pathology - p. 3250 563. Clinical Manifestations - p. 3253 564. Diagnosis - p. 3253 565. Granulomatous Pneumocystosis - p. 3256 566. Course and Prognosis - p. 3256 567. Treatment - p. 3257 568. Prevention - p. 3259 569. 276. Microsporidiosis - p. 3263 570. Genomics and Phylogeny of The Microsporidia - p. 3264 571. Cell Characteristics and Biology - p. 3265 572. Epidemiology - p. 3266 573. Pathology and Pathogenesis - p. 3267 574. Immunology - p. 3270 575. Clinical Manifestations - p. 3270 576. Diagnosis - p. 3272 577. Therapy - p. 3273 578. Ocular Disease - p. 3275 579. Prevention - p. 3275 580. 277. Introduction to Protozoal Diseases - p. 3278 581. 278. Entamoeba Species, Including Amebic Colitis and Liver Abscess - p. 3281 582. 279. Free-Living Amebae - p. 3295 583. 280. Malaria (Plasmodium Species) - p. 3308 584. Malaria History and Current Challenges - p. 3308 585. Plasmodium Species and Their Life Cycles - p. 3308 586. Epidemiology of Malaria - p. 3310 587. Pathophysiology and Pathogenesis - p. 3313 588. The Spectrum of Malaria Infection - p. 3314 589. Host Genetic Susceptibility to Malaria - p. 3318 590. Naturally Acquired Immunity - p. 3319 591. Laboratory Diagnosis of Malaria - p. 3319 592. Distinguishing Malaria From Other Illnesses with Similar Clinical Presentations - p. 3321 593. Clinical Management - p. 3322 594. Antimalarial Drugs: Regimens, Mechanisms of Action, and Resistance (See Also Chapter 44) - p. 3327 595. Global Distribution of Drug Resistance - p. 3330 596. Prevention of Malaria - p. 3331 597. Malaria Control, Elimination and Eradication - p. 3333 598. 281. Leishmania Species: Visceral, Cutaneous, and Mucosal Leishmaniasis - p. 3335 599. Overview and General Principles - p. 3335 600. Visceral Leishmaniasis - p. 3338 601. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis - p. 3345 602. Mucosal Leishmaniasis - p. 3352 603. Prevention - p. 3353 604. Acknowledgment - p. 3354 605. 282. Trypanosoma Species (American Trypanosomiasis, Chagas Disease): Biology of Trypanosomes - p. 3355 606. 283. Agents of African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness) - p. 3364 607. 284. Toxoplasma gondii - p. 3370 608. Etiology - p. 3370 609. Organism Stages - p. 3371 610. Transmission and Epidemiology - p. 3373 611. Pathogenesis and Immunity - p. 3375 612. Sequelae of Chronic Toxoplasmosis: Link to Behavioral Changes, Neurological and Psychiatric Disease, and Other Chronic Disease - p. 3377 613. Genetic Susceptibility - p. 3377 614. Pathology - p. 3377 615. Clinical Manifestations - p. 3379 616. Diagnosis - p. 3386 617. Therapy - p. 3394 618. Prevention and Prophylaxis - p. 3400 619. Acknowledgments - p. 3401 620. 285. Giardia lamblia - p. 3403 621. 286. Trichomonas vaginalis - p. 3411 622. 287. Babesia Species - p. 3415 623. 288. Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium Species) - p. 3426 624. The Parasites - p. 3426 625. Epidemiology - p. 3427 626. Pathology and Pathogenesis - p. 3429 627. Host Response and Immunity - p. 3430 628. Clinical Manifestations - p. 3431 629. Immunocompetent Individuals in High-Income Countries - p. 3431 630. Diagnosis - p. 3432 631. Management - p. 3433 632. Prevention - p. 3435 633. 289. Cyclospora cayetanensis, Cystoisospora belli, Sarcocystis Species, Balantidium coli, and Blastocystis Species - p. 3437 634. 290. Human Illness Associated With Cyanobacteria and Harmful Algal Blooms, Including Fish and Shellfish Poisoning Syndromes - p. 3445 635. 291. Introduction to Helminth Infections - p. 3449 636. 292. Intestinal Nematodes (Roundworms) - p. 3453 637. 293. Tissue Nematodes, Including Trichinellosis, Dracunculiasis, and the Filariases - p. 3461 638. 294. Trematodes (Schistosomes and Liver, Intestinal, and Lung Flukes) - p. 3470 639. 295. Tapeworms (Cestodes) - p. 3483 640. 296. Visceral Larva Migrans and Other Uncommon Helminth Infections - p. 3496 641. 297. Introduction to Ectoparasitic Diseases - p. 3502 642. 298. Lice (Pediculosis) - p. 3506 643. 299. Scabies - p. 3513 644. 300. Myiasis and Tungiasis - p. 3518 645. 301. Mites, Including Chiggers - p. 3524 646. 302. Ticks, Including Tick Paralysis - p. 3533 647. 303. Kawasaki Disease - p. 3555 648. Special Problems - p. 3560.e2 649. 304. Infection Prevention and Control in the Health Care Setting - p. 3561 650. 305. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Hospital Waste - p. 3571 651. 306. Infections Caused by Percutaneous Intravascular Devices - p. 3584 652. Pathogenesis - p. 3585 653. Epidemiology - p. 3586 654. Microbiology - p. 3587 655. Diagnosis - p. 3587 656. Device-Specific Issues - p. 3589 657. Prevention of Device-Associated Bacteremia - p. 3595 658. 307. Nosocomial Pneumonia - p. 3600 659. 308. Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection (CAUTI) and Catheter-Associated Asymptomatic Bacteriuria (CA-ASB) - p. 3610 660. 309. Transfusion- and Transplant-Transmitted Infections - p. 3625 661. 310. Infections in the Immunocompromised Host: General Principles - p. 3635 662. 311. Prophylaxis and Empirical Therapy of Infection in Cancer Patients - p. 3645 663. Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Infections in Cancer Patients - p. 3646 664. Etiology - p. 3652 665. Prevention of Infections in Cancer Patients - p. 3655 666. Treatment of Complications in Neutropenic Cancer Patients - p. 3662 667. Conclusions - p. 3668 668. Acknowledgement - p. 3668 669. 312. Infections in Recipients of Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation and Cellular Therapies - p. 3672 670. Basic Transplantation Techniques - p. 3673 671. Clinical Syndromes Unique to Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation and Cellular Therapy - p. 3675 672. Patterns of Immunosuppression at Different Times after HCT - p. 3677 673. Natural History of Individual Infections After HCT - p. 3681 674. Methods of Immune System Reconstitution After HCT - p. 3690 675. 313. Infections in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients - p. 3695 676. Fundamentals of Immunosuppressive Therapy - p. 3696 677. Pretransplant Evaluation For Infections - p. 3698 678. Timing of occurrence of Infections After Transplantation - p. 3699 679. Unique Characteristics of Infections In Different Types of Transplants - p. 3700 680. Specific Sites and Types of Infection - p. 3704 681. Specific Viral Infections - p. 3707 682. COVID-19 - p. 3714 683. Donor-Transmitted Infections - p. 3717 684. Approach To Fever In The Transplant Recipient - p. 3717 685. Vaccination in organ Transplant Candidates and Recipients - p. 3718 686. Acknowledgments - p. 3720 687. 314. Infections in Older Adults - p. 3722 688. 315. Infections in Asplenic Patients - p. 3731 689. 316. Infections in Persons Who Inject Drugs - p. 3741 690. Harm Reduction - p. 3743 691. Host Defenses - p. 3743 692. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections - p. 3744 693. Bone and Joint Infections - p. 3747 694. Bacteremia and Infective Endocarditis - p. 3747 695. Noncardiac Vascular Infections - p. 3751 696. Pulmonary Infections - p. 3753 697. Hepatitis - p. 3754 698. Splenic Abscess - p. 3755 699. Central Nervous System Infections - p. 3755 700. Ocular Infections - p. 3757 701. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection - p. 3758 702. Sexually Transmitted Infections - p. 3758 703. 317. Surgical Site Infections and Antimicrobial Prophylaxis - p. 3760 704. 318. Burns - p. 3774 705. 319. Infections Following Trauma Injuries - p. 3782 706. Overview of Traumatic Injuries - p. 3782 707. Major Trauma and Host Response - p. 3783 708. Trauma-Related Infection Epidemiology - p. 3785 709. Trauma-Related Infection Prevention - p. 3790 710. Trauma-Related Infection Syndromes: Management Considerations - p. 3794 711. Acknowledgments - p. 3798 712. 320. Bites - p. 3800 713. 321. Principles of Immunization for Public Health - p. 3805 714. 322. Immunizations for Specific Infections - p. 3813 715. Immunologic Basis of Vaccination - p. 3814 716. Components of the Immune Response - p. 3814 717. Mobilization of the Adaptive Immune Response - p. 3815 718. Unanticipated Responses - p. 3815 719. Temporal Course of the Immune Response - p. 3816 720. Measurement of the Immune Response - p. 3816 721. Vaccine Development - p. 3816 722. General Principles of Immunization: Vaccine Safety and Effectiveness - p. 3817 723. General Best Practices For Immunization - p. 3818 724. Currently Available Immunizing Agents - p. 3818 725. Monoclonal Antibodies - p. 3852 726. Use of Vaccines - p. 3853 727. 323. Protection of Travelers - p. 3862 728. 324. Infections in Returning Travelers - p. 3872 729. 325. Zoonoses - p. 3884 730. 326. Communicating About Infectious Diseases to the Public - p. 3890 731. 327. Basic Principles in Climate Change and Infectious Diseases - p. 3902 732. Index - p. I-1