Physical Metallurgy, Sixth Edition preserves the excellence of the previous editions of this popular work, keeping everything up-to-date and offering definitive, in-depth chapters with superb coverage and clarity of explanations. The book provides comprehensive and in-depth coverage of both ferrous and non-ferrous materials, written by leaders in the respective field, going from fundamental and foundational understanding to a higher level of knowledge. The book expertly integrates fundamental theory with advanced materials characterization techniques. It is an excellent resource for students and early-career metallurgists, while also offering great depth and insight for more experienced readers.
The chapters have been revised and expanded, with new chapters on the physical metallurgy of light alloys and titanium alloys, as well as atom probe field ion microscopy, computational metallurgy, and orientational imaging microscopy. Emphasis on sustainability is encouraged throughout, and the volumes incorporate the latest experimental research results and theoretical insights.
1. 1.1. Introduction - p. 2 2. 1.2. Factors Governing Formation and Stability of Crystal Structures - p. 5 3. 1.3. Crystal Structures of the Metallic Elements - p. 23 4. 1.4. Crystal Structures of Intermetallic Phases - p. 45 5. 1.5. Crystal Structures of Quasicrystals - p. 78 6. 2 Electron Theory of Metallic Alloys - p. 101 7. 2.1. Introduction - p. 101 8. 2.2. Electron Theory of Solids - p. 103 9. 2.3. Density Functional Theory - p. 110 10. 2.4. Green's Function Theory - p. 118 11. 2.4.1. Brief Summary of Theory of Scattering - p. 118 12. 2.4.2. Radial Green's Function - p. 121 13. 2.4.3. Free Space Green's Function - p. 122 14. 2.4.4. Green's Function in General Cases - p. 123 15. 2.4.5. Multiple Scattering in a Crystal - p. 124 16. 2.4.6. KKR and KKR Green's Function Methods - p. 126 17. 2.4.7. Total-Energy Calculation - p. 126 18. 2.4.8. Pressure - p. 128 19. 2.4.9. Application of the KKR Method - p. 129 20. 2.5. Real Materials - p. 138 21. Appendix A. Band Structure and Density of States of Elemental Solids - p. 152 22. 3 Thermodynamics and Phase Diagrams - p. 175 23. 3.1. Introduction - p. 175 24. 3.2. Thermodynamics - p. 181 25. 3.3. The Gibbs Phase Rule - p. 196 26. 3.4. Thermodynamic Origin of Binary Phase Diagrams - p. 201 27. 3.5. Binary Temperature-Composition Phase Diagrams - p. 212 28. 3.6. Ternary Temperature-Composition Phase Diagrams - p. 228 29. 3.7. General Phase Diagram Sections - p. 236 30. 3.8. Thermodynamic Databases for the Computer Calculation of Phase Diagrams - p. 257 31. 3.9. Equilibrium, Nonequilibrium, and Paraequilibrium Solidification - p. 265 32. 3.10. Second-Order and Higher-Order Transitions - p. 270 33. 3.11. Bibliography - p. 272 34. 4 Metallic Glasses - p. 277 35. 4.1. Introduction - p. 277 36. 4.2. Compositions, Thermodynamics, and Kinetics - p. 277 37. 4.3. Structure - p. 289 38. 4.4. Structural Change - p. 299 39. 4.5. Mechanical Properties - p. 327 40. 4.6. Applications - p. 346 41. 5 Diffusion in Metals and Alloys - p. 369 42. 5.1. Introduction - p. 370 43. 5.2. Atomistic Mechanism and Fundamental Relations of Diffusion - p. 372 44. 5.3. Interdiffusion in Concentrated Alloys and Thermodynamic Driving Forces - p. 403 45. 5.4. Experimental Techniques to Study Atomic Transport - p. 435 46. 5.5. Elementary Diffusion Properties of Metals and Intermetallic Compounds - p. 460 47. 5.6. Short Circuit Transport - p. 495 48. 5.7. Diffusion in Nanometric Dimensions - p. 515 49. 6 Defects in Metals - p. 551 50. 6.1. Introduction - p. 551 51. 6.2. Overview - p. 551 52. 6.3. Experimental Techniques - p. 578 53. 6.4. Point Defects in Pure Metals - p. 593 54. 6.5. Statistical Thermodynamics of Point Defects - p. 607 55. 6.6. Summary and Concluding Remarks - p. 618 56. 7 Solidification - p. 629 57. 7.1. Introduction - p. 629 58. 7.2. Transport Phenomena During Solidification - p. 630 59. 7.3. Thermodynamics of Solidification - p. 653 60. 7.4. Nucleation - p. 671 61. 7.5. Interface Kinetics - p. 683 62. 7.6. Solidification of Alloys with Planar and Nearly Planar L-S Interfaces - p. 694 63. 7.7. Cellular and Dendritic Solidification - p. 710 64. 7.8. Polyphase Solidification - p. 739 65. 7.9. Cast Structure and Fluid Flow - p. 772 66. 7.10. Additive Manufacturing of Metals - p. 805 67. 8 Diffusional Phase Transformations in the Solid State - p. 859 68. 8.1. Introduction - p. 859 69. 8.2. Energetics - p. 863 70. 8.2.1. Allotropic/Polymorphic Transformations - p. 864 71. 8.2.2. Thermodynamics of Alloys: Energetics and Stability of Solutions - p. 873 72. 8.2.3. Metastability - p. 885 73. 8.2.4. Atomic Ordering in Alloys: Superlattices - p. 887 74. 8.2.5. Landau Theory of Phase Transformations - p. 903 75. 8.2.6. Surface Energy and Capillarity Effects - p. 909 76. 8.3. Rate Processes in Solids - p. 922 77. 8.4. Classical Nucleation - p. 940 78. 8.5. Diffusional Growth of Phases - p. 956 79. 8.6. Precipitation from Solid Solution - p. 980 80. 8.7. Crystallography and Microstructure - p. 1011 81. 8.8. Massive Transformation - p. 1019 82. 8.9. Closure - p. 1021 83. 9 Martensitic Transformation - p. 1029 84. 9.1. Introduction - p. 1029 85. 9.2. Fundamental Characteristics - p. 1032 86. 9.3. Crystallographic Theory - p. 1036 87. 9.4. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Martensitic Transformations - p. 1043 88. 9.5. Martensite Morphology and Substructure - p. 1058 89. 9.6. Martensite-Parent and Martensite-Martensite Interfaces - p. 1100 90. 9.7. Mechanical Effects Specific to Thermoelastic Transformations - p. 1113 91. Supplementary 1-1 - p. 1124 92. Supplementary 1-2 - p. 1125 93. Supplementary 2 - p. 1125 94. Supplementary 3 - p. 1125 95. Supplementary material - p. 1126 96. Volume II - p. V2 97. 10 Transmission Electron Microscopy for Physical Metallurgists - p. 1137 98. 10.1. Introduction - p. 1137 99. 10.2. Electron Diffraction in the (S)TEM - p. 1137 100. 10.3. Imaging in Transmission Electron Microscopy - p. 1165 101. 10.4. Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) - p. 1196 102. 10.5. X-ray Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (XEDS) in a (S)TEM - p. 1207 103. 10.6. 4D STEM (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy) - p. 1215 104. 11 X-Ray Scattering and Neutron Scattering - p. 1239 105. 11.1. Basic Properties - p. 1239 106. 11.2. Interaction With Matter - p. 1251 107. 11.3. Diffraction From Crystalline Materials - p. 1272 108. 11.3.1. Geometrical Representations of Crystals - p. 1272 109. 11.3.2. Scattering From Small Single Crystals - p. 1273 110. 11.3.3. Diffraction Condition - p. 1275 111. 11.3.4. Reciprocal Lattice - p. 1276 112. 11.3.5. Integrated Intensity - p. 1280 113. 11.3.6. Integrated Intensity From a Crystalline Powder - p. 1284 114. 11.3.7. Neutron Diffraction From Crystalline Materials - p. 1290 115. 11.3.8. Peak Broadening Analysis - p. 1290 116. 11.3.9. Neutron Magnetic Scattering - p. 1295 117. 11.4. Small-Angle Scattering - p. 1300 118. 11.5. Structural Analysis of Amorphous Materials - p. 1317 119. 12 Atom Probe Tomography - p. 1341 120. 12.1. General Introduction - p. 1341 121. 12.2. Instrumentation - p. 1343 122. 12.3. Specimen Preparation - p. 1349 123. 12.4. APT From Data Acquisition to Processing and Reconstruction - p. 1360 124. 12.5. Modeling - p. 1368 125. 12.6. Analytical Performance - p. 1391 126. 12.7. Outlook - p. 1399 127. 13 Dislocations - p. 1419 128. 13.1. Introduction - p. 1419 129. 13.2. Plastic Deformation and Dislocations - p. 1420 130. 13.3. Elasticity Associated with Dislocations - p. 1435 131. 13.4. Models of Dislocation Cores - p. 1454 132. 13.5. Planar Dislocation Cores: Case of FCC Dislocations - p. 1472 133. 13.6. High-Peierls Stress Dislocations: Case of BCC Screw Dislocations - p. 1491 134. Appendix 1 - p. 1502 135. Biography - p. 1509 136. 14 Plastic Deformation of Metals and Alloys - p. 1511 137. Glossary - p. 1511 138. 14.1. Introduction - p. 1512 139. 14.2. Plastic Deformation Processes - p. 1513 140. 14.3. Role of Dislocations in Plastic Deformation - p. 1516 141. 14.4. Experimental Techniques for Characterization - p. 1524 142. 14.5. Development of Deformation Microstructures - p. 1528 143. 14.6. Slip System Dependence - p. 1557 144. 14.7. Microstructure and Local Texture - p. 1562 145. 14.8. Hot Deformation - p. 1563 146. 14.9. Influence of Second-Phase Particles on Structure - p. 1566 147. 14.10. Structure/Mechanical Property Relationships and Modeling - p. 1570 148. 14.11. Conclusion and Outlook - p. 1587 149. 15 Fatigue of Metals - p. 1595 150. 15.1. Introduction: History, Fatigue Approaches and Nomenclature - p. 1595 151. 15.2. Fatigue Testing - p. 1600 152. 15.3. Performance Parameters of Fatigue - p. 1604 153. 15.4. Cyclic Deformation - p. 1610 154. 15.4.1. Phenomenological Behavior and Dislocation Structures - p. 1611 155. 15.4.2. Models of Rapid Hardening Behavior: Loop Patches, Channels and PSBs - p. 1615 156. 15.4.3. Saturation Behavior and Strain Localization - p. 1623 157. 15.4.4. Models of Dislocation Behavior in Persistent Slip Bands - p. 1625 158. 15.4.5. Fatigue Cells - p. 1629 159. 15.4.6. Effect of Load Axis Orientation - p. 1631 160. 15.4.7. Cyclic Behavior of Other Pure fcc Metals - p. 1636 161. 15.4.8. Cyclic Hardening in Metals Other than fcc - p. 1637 162. 15.4.9. Cyclic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals - p. 1642 163. 15.4.10. Cyclic Deformation of Bicrystals - p. 1652 164. 15.4.11. Cyclic Deformation in Alloys - p. 1658 165. 15.4.12. Dislocation Patterning in Cyclic Deformation - p. 1667 166. 15.4.13. Mesoscale Modeling of Cyclic Plasticity - p. 1670 167. 15.5. Fatigue Crack Initiation in Ductile Metals - p. 1674 168. 15.6. Fatigue Crack Propagation - p. 1690 169. 15.7. Additional Topics - p. 1709 170. 16 Physical Metallurgy of Permanent Magnets - p. 1731 171. 16.1. Introduction - p. 1731 172. 16.2. Alnico Magnets - p. 1761 173. 16.3. Ferrite Magnets - p. 1763 174. 16.4. Sm-Co Magnets - p. 1764 175. 16.5. Nd-Fe-B Magnets - p. 1770 176. 16.6. Other RE-based Permanent Magnets - p. 1789 177. 16.7. Conclusion and Future Perspectives - p. 1799 178. 17 Physical Metallurgy of Light Alloys - p. 1809 179. 17.1. Introduction - p. 1809 180. 17.2. Precipitation and Age Hardening - p. 1810 181. 17.3. Aluminum Alloys - p. 1821 182. 17.3.2. Precipitation Hardening and Microstructural Design - p. 1855 183. 17.3.3. Formation Mechanisms of Plate-Shaped Precipitates - p. 1870 184. 17.3.4. Effects of Microalloying Additions - p. 1873 185. 17.3.5. Aerospace Applications of 2xxx and 7xxx Series Alloys - p. 1874 186. 17.4. Magnesium Alloys - p. 1879 187. 17.4.1. Precipitation and Age Hardening - p. 1879 188. 17.4.2. Effects of Precipitate Shape on Strengthening - p. 1930 189. 17.4.3. Microstructural Design for Higher Strength - p. 1936 190. 17.4.4. Applications of Magnesium Alloys - p. 1940 191. 17.5. Titanium Alloys - p. 1942 192. 18 Physical Metallurgy of Steels - p. 1961 193. Volume III - p. V3 194. 19 Physical Metallurgy of the Nickel-Based Superalloys - p. 1997 195. 19.1. Introduction - p. 1997 196. 19.2. Structure and Constitution of the Superalloys - p. 1998 197. 19.3. Planar, Line, and Point Defects in the Superalloys - p. 2005 198. 19.4. Strengthening Mechanisms in Nickel-Based Superalloys - p. 2014 199. 19.5. Single-Crystal Superalloys - p. 2035 200. 19.6. Summary and Conclusions - p. 2064 201. 20 Recovery and Recrystallization: Phenomena, Physics, Models, Simulation - p. 2073 202. 20.1. Phenomena, Terminology, and Methods: Recovery and Recrystallization - p. 2073 203. 20.2. Recovery - p. 2091 204. 20.3. Recrystallization - p. 2102 205. 20.4. Driving Forces of Recrystallization and Grain Growth Phenomena - p. 2147 206. 20.5. Dynamic and Metadynamic Recrystallization - p. 2152 207. 20.6. Grain Growth - p. 2157 208. 20.7. Secondary Recrystallization: Discontinuous Grain Coarsening - p. 2159 209. 20.8. Phenomenological Kinetics of Recrystallization - p. 2163 210. 20.9. Modeling Recrystallization and Grain Growth Phenomena - p. 2166 211. 20.10. Recrystallization of Compositionally Complex and High Entropy Alloys - p. 2175 212. 20.11. Recrystallization in Ordered Metallic Alloys - p. 2176 213. 20.12. Recrystallization in Dual Phase Steels - p. 2178 214. 21 High-Entropy Alloys - p. 2205 215. 21.1. Introduction - p. 2205 216. 21.2. Definitions of High-Entropy Alloys - p. 2206 217. 21.3. Four Core Effects of High-Entropy Alloys - p. 2209 218. 21.4. Crystal Structures and Phase Transformation in HEAs - p. 2215 219. 21.5. Mechanical Properties of HEAs - p. 2220 220. 21.6. Functional Properties - p. 2236 221. 21.7. Applications - p. 2242 222. 22 Hydrogen in metals - p. 2251 223. 22.1. Introduction - p. 2251 224. 22.2. Fundamentals - p. 2252 225. 22.3. Hydrogen in Defective Metals - p. 2270 226. 22.3.1. Diffusion and Trapping—General Theory - p. 2270 227. 22.3.2. Diffusion and Trapping—Special Cases and Experimental Results - p. 2282 228. 22.3.3. Hydrogen as a Defectant - p. 2294 229. 22.3.4. Hydrogen Effects on Mechanical Properties - p. 2303 230. 22.3.5. Hydrogen in Nano-Sized Metals - p. 2309 231. 22.3.6. Nano-Sized Metals: Thin Films, Multi-Layers and Clusters - p. 2309 232. 22.3.7. Microstructural Contributions in Nano-Sized Metals and H-Solubility - p. 2313 233. 22.3.8. Mechanical Stress and Stabilization of Nano-Sized Metals - p. 2320 234. 22.3.9. Nano-Sized Metals for Hydrogen Storage - p. 2357 235. 23 The Physical Metallurgy of Additive Manufacturing - p. 2369 236. 23.1. Introduction - p. 2370 237. 23.2. Defects - p. 2376 238. 23.3. Solidification - p. 2388 239. 23.4. Phase Transformation Pathways in the Solid State - p. 2406 240. 23.5. Post-AM Heat Treatments - p. 2421 241. 23.6. Grain Boundaries and Grain Boundary Engineering in AM - p. 2429 242. 23.7. Thermodynamics - p. 2437 243. 23.8. Diffusion - p. 2444 244. 23.9. Mechanical Properties - p. 2448 245. 23.10. Corrosion Properties - p. 2469 246. 23.11. Concluding Remarks - p. 2477 247. 24 Metallic Biomaterials - p. 2493 248. 24.1. Introduction - p. 2493 249. 24.2. Stainless Steels - p. 2495 250. 24.3. Co-Cr Based Alloys - p. 2506 251. 24.4. Ti and Its Alloys - p. 2528 252. 24.5. Zr Alloys - p. 2622 253. 24.6. Summary - p. 2659 254. 25 Computational Physical Metallurgy of Phase-Field Method - p. 2679 255. 25.1. Introduction - p. 2679 256. 25.2. Phase-Field Method - p. 2684 257. 25.3. Physical Metallurgy Utilized in Phase-Field Method - p. 2689 258. 25.3.2. Free Energy of Inhomogeneous Microstructure (1)—Gradient Energy - p. 2693 259. 25.3.3. Free Energy of Inhomogeneous Microstructure (2)—Phase-field Micro-elasticity Theory - p. 2700 260. 25.3.4. Free Energy of Inhomogeneous Microstructure (3)—Long Range Interaction Energy - p. 2706 261. 25.3.5. Relationship Between Energetic Theory and Kinetics - p. 2708 262. 25.4. Formulation of Phase-Field Method - p. 2715 263. 25.5. Phase-Field Simulations - p. 2724 264. 25.5.1. Phase Decomposition (Binary System) - p. 2724 265. 25.5.2. Spinodal Decomposition (Ternary System) - p. 2732 266. 25.5.2. Simulation Results - p. 2735 267. 25.5.3. Diffusionless Transformation (Martensitic Transformation with Twin Formation) - p. 2736 268. 25.5.4. Order-Disorder Phase Transition (Dynamics of Anti-phase Boundary) - p. 2742 269. 25.5.5. Structural Phase Transition with Order-Disorder Phase Transition - p. 2745 270. 25.5.6. Solidification (Dendrite Growth in Pure Metal) - p. 2749 271. 25.5.7. Polycrystalline Grain Microstructure (Grain Growth) - p. 2755 272. 25.5.8. Grain Boundary Precipitation - p. 2757 273. 25.5.9. Ferroelectric Domain Microstructure Formation under Dipole-Dipole Interaction - p. 2759 274. 25.6. Microstructures and Property Calculations - p. 2764 275. 26 Probabilistic Materials Informatics - p. 2783 276. 26.1. Introduction - p. 2783 277. 26.2. Sourcing - p. 2786 278. 26.3. Core Background - p. 2786 279. 26.4. Quantification - p. 2790 280. 26.5. Surrogate Modeling - p. 2803 281. 26.6. Design - p. 2812 282. 26.7. Model Calibration and Composition - p. 2833 283. 26.8. Discovery - p. 2862 284. 26.9. Data Generation - p. 2869 285. 26.10. Open Problems and Perspectives - p. 2903 286. 26.11. Conclusions - p. 2921
Physical Metallurgy, Sixth Edition preserves the excellence of the previous editions of this popular work, keeping everything up-to-date and offering definitive, in-depth chapters with superb coverage and clarity of explanations. The book provides comprehensive and in-depth coverage of both ferrous and non-ferrous materials, written by leaders in the respective field, going from fundamental and foundational understanding to a higher level of knowledge. The book expertly integrates fundamental theory with advanced materials characterization techniques. It is an excellent resource for students and early-career metallurgists, while also offering great depth and insight for more experienced readers.
The chapters have been revised and expanded, with new chapters on the physical metallurgy of light alloys and titanium alloys, as well as atom probe field ion microscopy, computational metallurgy, and orientational imaging microscopy. Emphasis on sustainability is encouraged throughout, and the volumes incorporate the latest experimental research results and theoretical insights.
1. 1.1. Introduction - p. 2 2. 1.2. Factors Governing Formation and Stability of Crystal Structures - p. 5 3. 1.3. Crystal Structures of the Metallic Elements - p. 23 4. 1.4. Crystal Structures of Intermetallic Phases - p. 45 5. 1.5. Crystal Structures of Quasicrystals - p. 78 6. 2 Electron Theory of Metallic Alloys - p. 101 7. 2.1. Introduction - p. 101 8. 2.2. Electron Theory of Solids - p. 103 9. 2.3. Density Functional Theory - p. 110 10. 2.4. Green's Function Theory - p. 118 11. 2.4.1. Brief Summary of Theory of Scattering - p. 118 12. 2.4.2. Radial Green's Function - p. 121 13. 2.4.3. Free Space Green's Function - p. 122 14. 2.4.4. Green's Function in General Cases - p. 123 15. 2.4.5. Multiple Scattering in a Crystal - p. 124 16. 2.4.6. KKR and KKR Green's Function Methods - p. 126 17. 2.4.7. Total-Energy Calculation - p. 126 18. 2.4.8. Pressure - p. 128 19. 2.4.9. Application of the KKR Method - p. 129 20. 2.5. Real Materials - p. 138 21. Appendix A. Band Structure and Density of States of Elemental Solids - p. 152 22. 3 Thermodynamics and Phase Diagrams - p. 175 23. 3.1. Introduction - p. 175 24. 3.2. Thermodynamics - p. 181 25. 3.3. The Gibbs Phase Rule - p. 196 26. 3.4. Thermodynamic Origin of Binary Phase Diagrams - p. 201 27. 3.5. Binary Temperature-Composition Phase Diagrams - p. 212 28. 3.6. Ternary Temperature-Composition Phase Diagrams - p. 228 29. 3.7. General Phase Diagram Sections - p. 236 30. 3.8. Thermodynamic Databases for the Computer Calculation of Phase Diagrams - p. 257 31. 3.9. Equilibrium, Nonequilibrium, and Paraequilibrium Solidification - p. 265 32. 3.10. Second-Order and Higher-Order Transitions - p. 270 33. 3.11. Bibliography - p. 272 34. 4 Metallic Glasses - p. 277 35. 4.1. Introduction - p. 277 36. 4.2. Compositions, Thermodynamics, and Kinetics - p. 277 37. 4.3. Structure - p. 289 38. 4.4. Structural Change - p. 299 39. 4.5. Mechanical Properties - p. 327 40. 4.6. Applications - p. 346 41. 5 Diffusion in Metals and Alloys - p. 369 42. 5.1. Introduction - p. 370 43. 5.2. Atomistic Mechanism and Fundamental Relations of Diffusion - p. 372 44. 5.3. Interdiffusion in Concentrated Alloys and Thermodynamic Driving Forces - p. 403 45. 5.4. Experimental Techniques to Study Atomic Transport - p. 435 46. 5.5. Elementary Diffusion Properties of Metals and Intermetallic Compounds - p. 460 47. 5.6. Short Circuit Transport - p. 495 48. 5.7. Diffusion in Nanometric Dimensions - p. 515 49. 6 Defects in Metals - p. 551 50. 6.1. Introduction - p. 551 51. 6.2. Overview - p. 551 52. 6.3. Experimental Techniques - p. 578 53. 6.4. Point Defects in Pure Metals - p. 593 54. 6.5. Statistical Thermodynamics of Point Defects - p. 607 55. 6.6. Summary and Concluding Remarks - p. 618 56. 7 Solidification - p. 629 57. 7.1. Introduction - p. 629 58. 7.2. Transport Phenomena During Solidification - p. 630 59. 7.3. Thermodynamics of Solidification - p. 653 60. 7.4. Nucleation - p. 671 61. 7.5. Interface Kinetics - p. 683 62. 7.6. Solidification of Alloys with Planar and Nearly Planar L-S Interfaces - p. 694 63. 7.7. Cellular and Dendritic Solidification - p. 710 64. 7.8. Polyphase Solidification - p. 739 65. 7.9. Cast Structure and Fluid Flow - p. 772 66. 7.10. Additive Manufacturing of Metals - p. 805 67. 8 Diffusional Phase Transformations in the Solid State - p. 859 68. 8.1. Introduction - p. 859 69. 8.2. Energetics - p. 863 70. 8.2.1. Allotropic/Polymorphic Transformations - p. 864 71. 8.2.2. Thermodynamics of Alloys: Energetics and Stability of Solutions - p. 873 72. 8.2.3. Metastability - p. 885 73. 8.2.4. Atomic Ordering in Alloys: Superlattices - p. 887 74. 8.2.5. Landau Theory of Phase Transformations - p. 903 75. 8.2.6. Surface Energy and Capillarity Effects - p. 909 76. 8.3. Rate Processes in Solids - p. 922 77. 8.4. Classical Nucleation - p. 940 78. 8.5. Diffusional Growth of Phases - p. 956 79. 8.6. Precipitation from Solid Solution - p. 980 80. 8.7. Crystallography and Microstructure - p. 1011 81. 8.8. Massive Transformation - p. 1019 82. 8.9. Closure - p. 1021 83. 9 Martensitic Transformation - p. 1029 84. 9.1. Introduction - p. 1029 85. 9.2. Fundamental Characteristics - p. 1032 86. 9.3. Crystallographic Theory - p. 1036 87. 9.4. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Martensitic Transformations - p. 1043 88. 9.5. Martensite Morphology and Substructure - p. 1058 89. 9.6. Martensite-Parent and Martensite-Martensite Interfaces - p. 1100 90. 9.7. Mechanical Effects Specific to Thermoelastic Transformations - p. 1113 91. Supplementary 1-1 - p. 1124 92. Supplementary 1-2 - p. 1125 93. Supplementary 2 - p. 1125 94. Supplementary 3 - p. 1125 95. Supplementary material - p. 1126 96. Volume II - p. V2 97. 10 Transmission Electron Microscopy for Physical Metallurgists - p. 1137 98. 10.1. Introduction - p. 1137 99. 10.2. Electron Diffraction in the (S)TEM - p. 1137 100. 10.3. Imaging in Transmission Electron Microscopy - p. 1165 101. 10.4. Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) - p. 1196 102. 10.5. X-ray Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (XEDS) in a (S)TEM - p. 1207 103. 10.6. 4D STEM (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy) - p. 1215 104. 11 X-Ray Scattering and Neutron Scattering - p. 1239 105. 11.1. Basic Properties - p. 1239 106. 11.2. Interaction With Matter - p. 1251 107. 11.3. Diffraction From Crystalline Materials - p. 1272 108. 11.3.1. Geometrical Representations of Crystals - p. 1272 109. 11.3.2. Scattering From Small Single Crystals - p. 1273 110. 11.3.3. Diffraction Condition - p. 1275 111. 11.3.4. Reciprocal Lattice - p. 1276 112. 11.3.5. Integrated Intensity - p. 1280 113. 11.3.6. Integrated Intensity From a Crystalline Powder - p. 1284 114. 11.3.7. Neutron Diffraction From Crystalline Materials - p. 1290 115. 11.3.8. Peak Broadening Analysis - p. 1290 116. 11.3.9. Neutron Magnetic Scattering - p. 1295 117. 11.4. Small-Angle Scattering - p. 1300 118. 11.5. Structural Analysis of Amorphous Materials - p. 1317 119. 12 Atom Probe Tomography - p. 1341 120. 12.1. General Introduction - p. 1341 121. 12.2. Instrumentation - p. 1343 122. 12.3. Specimen Preparation - p. 1349 123. 12.4. APT From Data Acquisition to Processing and Reconstruction - p. 1360 124. 12.5. Modeling - p. 1368 125. 12.6. Analytical Performance - p. 1391 126. 12.7. Outlook - p. 1399 127. 13 Dislocations - p. 1419 128. 13.1. Introduction - p. 1419 129. 13.2. Plastic Deformation and Dislocations - p. 1420 130. 13.3. Elasticity Associated with Dislocations - p. 1435 131. 13.4. Models of Dislocation Cores - p. 1454 132. 13.5. Planar Dislocation Cores: Case of FCC Dislocations - p. 1472 133. 13.6. High-Peierls Stress Dislocations: Case of BCC Screw Dislocations - p. 1491 134. Appendix 1 - p. 1502 135. Biography - p. 1509 136. 14 Plastic Deformation of Metals and Alloys - p. 1511 137. Glossary - p. 1511 138. 14.1. Introduction - p. 1512 139. 14.2. Plastic Deformation Processes - p. 1513 140. 14.3. Role of Dislocations in Plastic Deformation - p. 1516 141. 14.4. Experimental Techniques for Characterization - p. 1524 142. 14.5. Development of Deformation Microstructures - p. 1528 143. 14.6. Slip System Dependence - p. 1557 144. 14.7. Microstructure and Local Texture - p. 1562 145. 14.8. Hot Deformation - p. 1563 146. 14.9. Influence of Second-Phase Particles on Structure - p. 1566 147. 14.10. Structure/Mechanical Property Relationships and Modeling - p. 1570 148. 14.11. Conclusion and Outlook - p. 1587 149. 15 Fatigue of Metals - p. 1595 150. 15.1. Introduction: History, Fatigue Approaches and Nomenclature - p. 1595 151. 15.2. Fatigue Testing - p. 1600 152. 15.3. Performance Parameters of Fatigue - p. 1604 153. 15.4. Cyclic Deformation - p. 1610 154. 15.4.1. Phenomenological Behavior and Dislocation Structures - p. 1611 155. 15.4.2. Models of Rapid Hardening Behavior: Loop Patches, Channels and PSBs - p. 1615 156. 15.4.3. Saturation Behavior and Strain Localization - p. 1623 157. 15.4.4. Models of Dislocation Behavior in Persistent Slip Bands - p. 1625 158. 15.4.5. Fatigue Cells - p. 1629 159. 15.4.6. Effect of Load Axis Orientation - p. 1631 160. 15.4.7. Cyclic Behavior of Other Pure fcc Metals - p. 1636 161. 15.4.8. Cyclic Hardening in Metals Other than fcc - p. 1637 162. 15.4.9. Cyclic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals - p. 1642 163. 15.4.10. Cyclic Deformation of Bicrystals - p. 1652 164. 15.4.11. Cyclic Deformation in Alloys - p. 1658 165. 15.4.12. Dislocation Patterning in Cyclic Deformation - p. 1667 166. 15.4.13. Mesoscale Modeling of Cyclic Plasticity - p. 1670 167. 15.5. Fatigue Crack Initiation in Ductile Metals - p. 1674 168. 15.6. Fatigue Crack Propagation - p. 1690 169. 15.7. Additional Topics - p. 1709 170. 16 Physical Metallurgy of Permanent Magnets - p. 1731 171. 16.1. Introduction - p. 1731 172. 16.2. Alnico Magnets - p. 1761 173. 16.3. Ferrite Magnets - p. 1763 174. 16.4. Sm-Co Magnets - p. 1764 175. 16.5. Nd-Fe-B Magnets - p. 1770 176. 16.6. Other RE-based Permanent Magnets - p. 1789 177. 16.7. Conclusion and Future Perspectives - p. 1799 178. 17 Physical Metallurgy of Light Alloys - p. 1809 179. 17.1. Introduction - p. 1809 180. 17.2. Precipitation and Age Hardening - p. 1810 181. 17.3. Aluminum Alloys - p. 1821 182. 17.3.2. Precipitation Hardening and Microstructural Design - p. 1855 183. 17.3.3. Formation Mechanisms of Plate-Shaped Precipitates - p. 1870 184. 17.3.4. Effects of Microalloying Additions - p. 1873 185. 17.3.5. Aerospace Applications of 2xxx and 7xxx Series Alloys - p. 1874 186. 17.4. Magnesium Alloys - p. 1879 187. 17.4.1. Precipitation and Age Hardening - p. 1879 188. 17.4.2. Effects of Precipitate Shape on Strengthening - p. 1930 189. 17.4.3. Microstructural Design for Higher Strength - p. 1936 190. 17.4.4. Applications of Magnesium Alloys - p. 1940 191. 17.5. Titanium Alloys - p. 1942 192. 18 Physical Metallurgy of Steels - p. 1961 193. Volume III - p. V3 194. 19 Physical Metallurgy of the Nickel-Based Superalloys - p. 1997 195. 19.1. Introduction - p. 1997 196. 19.2. Structure and Constitution of the Superalloys - p. 1998 197. 19.3. Planar, Line, and Point Defects in the Superalloys - p. 2005 198. 19.4. Strengthening Mechanisms in Nickel-Based Superalloys - p. 2014 199. 19.5. Single-Crystal Superalloys - p. 2035 200. 19.6. Summary and Conclusions - p. 2064 201. 20 Recovery and Recrystallization: Phenomena, Physics, Models, Simulation - p. 2073 202. 20.1. Phenomena, Terminology, and Methods: Recovery and Recrystallization - p. 2073 203. 20.2. Recovery - p. 2091 204. 20.3. Recrystallization - p. 2102 205. 20.4. Driving Forces of Recrystallization and Grain Growth Phenomena - p. 2147 206. 20.5. Dynamic and Metadynamic Recrystallization - p. 2152 207. 20.6. Grain Growth - p. 2157 208. 20.7. Secondary Recrystallization: Discontinuous Grain Coarsening - p. 2159 209. 20.8. Phenomenological Kinetics of Recrystallization - p. 2163 210. 20.9. Modeling Recrystallization and Grain Growth Phenomena - p. 2166 211. 20.10. Recrystallization of Compositionally Complex and High Entropy Alloys - p. 2175 212. 20.11. Recrystallization in Ordered Metallic Alloys - p. 2176 213. 20.12. Recrystallization in Dual Phase Steels - p. 2178 214. 21 High-Entropy Alloys - p. 2205 215. 21.1. Introduction - p. 2205 216. 21.2. Definitions of High-Entropy Alloys - p. 2206 217. 21.3. Four Core Effects of High-Entropy Alloys - p. 2209 218. 21.4. Crystal Structures and Phase Transformation in HEAs - p. 2215 219. 21.5. Mechanical Properties of HEAs - p. 2220 220. 21.6. Functional Properties - p. 2236 221. 21.7. Applications - p. 2242 222. 22 Hydrogen in metals - p. 2251 223. 22.1. Introduction - p. 2251 224. 22.2. Fundamentals - p. 2252 225. 22.3. Hydrogen in Defective Metals - p. 2270 226. 22.3.1. Diffusion and Trapping—General Theory - p. 2270 227. 22.3.2. Diffusion and Trapping—Special Cases and Experimental Results - p. 2282 228. 22.3.3. Hydrogen as a Defectant - p. 2294 229. 22.3.4. Hydrogen Effects on Mechanical Properties - p. 2303 230. 22.3.5. Hydrogen in Nano-Sized Metals - p. 2309 231. 22.3.6. Nano-Sized Metals: Thin Films, Multi-Layers and Clusters - p. 2309 232. 22.3.7. Microstructural Contributions in Nano-Sized Metals and H-Solubility - p. 2313 233. 22.3.8. Mechanical Stress and Stabilization of Nano-Sized Metals - p. 2320 234. 22.3.9. Nano-Sized Metals for Hydrogen Storage - p. 2357 235. 23 The Physical Metallurgy of Additive Manufacturing - p. 2369 236. 23.1. Introduction - p. 2370 237. 23.2. Defects - p. 2376 238. 23.3. Solidification - p. 2388 239. 23.4. Phase Transformation Pathways in the Solid State - p. 2406 240. 23.5. Post-AM Heat Treatments - p. 2421 241. 23.6. Grain Boundaries and Grain Boundary Engineering in AM - p. 2429 242. 23.7. Thermodynamics - p. 2437 243. 23.8. Diffusion - p. 2444 244. 23.9. Mechanical Properties - p. 2448 245. 23.10. Corrosion Properties - p. 2469 246. 23.11. Concluding Remarks - p. 2477 247. 24 Metallic Biomaterials - p. 2493 248. 24.1. Introduction - p. 2493 249. 24.2. Stainless Steels - p. 2495 250. 24.3. Co-Cr Based Alloys - p. 2506 251. 24.4. Ti and Its Alloys - p. 2528 252. 24.5. Zr Alloys - p. 2622 253. 24.6. Summary - p. 2659 254. 25 Computational Physical Metallurgy of Phase-Field Method - p. 2679 255. 25.1. Introduction - p. 2679 256. 25.2. Phase-Field Method - p. 2684 257. 25.3. Physical Metallurgy Utilized in Phase-Field Method - p. 2689 258. 25.3.2. Free Energy of Inhomogeneous Microstructure (1)—Gradient Energy - p. 2693 259. 25.3.3. Free Energy of Inhomogeneous Microstructure (2)—Phase-field Micro-elasticity Theory - p. 2700 260. 25.3.4. Free Energy of Inhomogeneous Microstructure (3)—Long Range Interaction Energy - p. 2706 261. 25.3.5. Relationship Between Energetic Theory and Kinetics - p. 2708 262. 25.4. Formulation of Phase-Field Method - p. 2715 263. 25.5. Phase-Field Simulations - p. 2724 264. 25.5.1. Phase Decomposition (Binary System) - p. 2724 265. 25.5.2. Spinodal Decomposition (Ternary System) - p. 2732 266. 25.5.2. Simulation Results - p. 2735 267. 25.5.3. Diffusionless Transformation (Martensitic Transformation with Twin Formation) - p. 2736 268. 25.5.4. Order-Disorder Phase Transition (Dynamics of Anti-phase Boundary) - p. 2742 269. 25.5.5. Structural Phase Transition with Order-Disorder Phase Transition - p. 2745 270. 25.5.6. Solidification (Dendrite Growth in Pure Metal) - p. 2749 271. 25.5.7. Polycrystalline Grain Microstructure (Grain Growth) - p. 2755 272. 25.5.8. Grain Boundary Precipitation - p. 2757 273. 25.5.9. Ferroelectric Domain Microstructure Formation under Dipole-Dipole Interaction - p. 2759 274. 25.6. Microstructures and Property Calculations - p. 2764 275. 26 Probabilistic Materials Informatics - p. 2783 276. 26.1. Introduction - p. 2783 277. 26.2. Sourcing - p. 2786 278. 26.3. Core Background - p. 2786 279. 26.4. Quantification - p. 2790 280. 26.5. Surrogate Modeling - p. 2803 281. 26.6. Design - p. 2812 282. 26.7. Model Calibration and Composition - p. 2833 283. 26.8. Discovery - p. 2862 284. 26.9. Data Generation - p. 2869 285. 26.10. Open Problems and Perspectives - p. 2903 286. 26.11. Conclusions - p. 2921
