The book presents a detailed assessment of the health science of lead and the human health risk assessment models for lead’s human health impacts, followed by an account of various regulatory efforts in the United States and elsewhere to eliminate or reduce human toxic exposures to lead. The science of lead as presented here covers releases of lead into the environment, lead’s movement through the environment to reach humans who are then exposed, and the spectrum of toxic effects, particularly low-level toxic effects, on the developing central nervous system of the very young child. The section on human health risk assessment deals with quantifying not only the dose-response relationships that underlie toxic responses to lead in sensitive populations but also with the likelihood of toxic responses vis-à-vis environmental lead at some level of exposure. This section includes a treatment of computer models of lead exposure, particularly those that use lead in whole blood as a key measure. Various models convert lead intake via various body compartments into measures of body lead burden. Such measures are then directly related to severity of injury.
The final section of the book deals with past and present regulatory efforts to control lead releases into the human environment. Current control efforts present a mixed picture. The most problematic issue is the continued presence of lead paint in older housing and lead in soils of urban and mining industry communities.
1. Introduction 2. 1.1. The Science of Lead and Human Health 3. 1.2. Lead and Human Health Risk Assessment 4. 1.3. Regulation of Lead in the Human Environment 5. 1.4. Organization of the Book 6. A Brief Early History of Lead as an Evolving Global Pollutant and Toxicant 7. 2.1. Earliest Records and Uses of Lead 8. 2.2. The Interplay of Lead Production, Use, and Environmental Contamination 9. 2.3. Lead Production, Use, and Exposures: The Middle Ages to the Industrial Revolution 10. 2.4. Lead Production and Uses in the Twentieth Century 11. Lead in the Human Environment 12. 3.1. Introduction 13. 3.2. Lead Production 14. 3.3. Modern Era Lead Consumption in the United States and Elsewhere 15. 3.4. Trends in U.S. and Global Pb Consumption 16. 3.5. Linkages Among Lead Production, Consumption, Dispersal, and Potential Exposures 17. Lead in the Human Environment 18. 4.1. Introduction 19. 4.2. Historical Perspective on Lead Sources/Emissions 20. 4.3. Current Lead Sources and Emissions 21. 4.4. Trends in Pb Emissions to Global and U.S. Environmental Compartments 22. Lead in the Human Environment 23. 5.1. Introduction 24. 5.2. Atmospheric Lead Transport 25. 5.3. Fate and Transport of Lead in Soils 26. 5.4. Fate and Transport of Lead in Dusts 27. 5.5. Fate and Transport of Lead in Plants 28. 5.6. Fate and Transport of Lead in Surface and Groundwaters 29. 5.7. Fate and Transport of Lead in Sediments 30. Lead Concentrations in Environmental Media Relevant to Human Lead Exposures 31. 6.1. Lead as Multimedia Pollutant 32. 6.2. Summary of Sampling and Laboratory Analytical Methods for Environmental Lead 33. 6.3. Concentrations of Lead in Environmental Media Producing Exposures 34. Lead Exposure in Human Populations 35. 7.1. Introduction 36. 7.2. Daily Lead Intakes by U.S. and Other Populations 37. Lead Exposure in Human Populations 38. 8.1. Introduction 39. 8.2. Absorption of Lead in Humans and Animals 40. 8.3. In Vivo Distribution of Lead in Humans and Experimental Animals 41. 8.4. Retention and Excretion of Lead in Human Populations 42. 8.5. Lead–Nutrient Interactions in Human Populations 43. 8.6. The Role of Genetic Variability in Pb Toxicokinetics 44. 8.7. Toxicokinetics and Biomarkers of Human Pb Exposure 45. Predictive Modeling Approaches for Assessing Human Lead Exposure 46. 9.1. Introduction 47. 9.2. Ad Hoc/Statistical Models 48. 9.3. Mechanistic/Biokinetic Models 49. The Environmental Epidemiology of Human Lead Exposure 50. 10.1. Introduction 51. 10.2. Early Epidemiological Studies of Human Lead Exposure 52. 10.3. Contemporary Pb Exposure Surveys and Their Various U.S. and International Correlates 53. 10.4. Childhood Pb Screening Programs and Their Various Correlates 54. 10.5. Epidemiological Studies of PbB/Pb Source Relationships 55. 10.6. Temporal Trends 56. Lead Toxicity in Humans 57. 11.1. Introduction 58. 11.2. The Scientific and Public Health Awareness of Lead as a Human Health Hazard 59. 11.3. Early Experimental Animal Studies Documenting and Characterizing Lead Toxicity 60. 11.4. Scientific and Public Health Awareness of Pb Poisoning From the Second Half of the Twentieth Century to the Present 61. 11.5. Awareness of Lead Poisoning Among the General Public and its Social Institutions 62. 11.6. The Contentious Relationships between Lead's Economics and Human Health Hazards: Lessons from Case Studies 63. 11.7. Sources and Control of Human Health Hazard Information for Lead 64. 11.8. Establishment of Active Public Roles in Pb Poisoning Awareness, in Advancing Pb-Poisoning Research and in Creating Stable Mechanisms for Human Health Protection 65. Neurotoxicity of Lead in Human Populations 66. 12.1. Introduction 67. 12.2. Lead Neurotoxicity in Children 68. 12.3. Lead Neurotoxicity in Adults 69. 12.4. Experimental Animal Models of Lead Neurotoxicity in Human Populations 70. 12.5. General and Neural-Specific Mechanisms of Pb Toxicity in the Human Nervous System 71. 12.6. Some Persisting and New Directions for Lead Neurotoxicity in Human Populations 72. Cardiovascular Toxicity of Lead in Human Populations 73. 13.1. Introduction 74. 13.2. Epidemiology of Cardiovascular Toxicity in Adult Occupational Populations 75. 13.3. Pb Cardiovascular Effects in General Adult Populations 76. 13.4. Epidemiological Studies of Lead's Cardiovascular Effects in Children 77. 13.5. Experimental Animal Studies of Cardiovascular Effects of Lead 78. 13.6. Some Likely Toxicological Mechanisms of Pb-Associated Cardiovascular Toxicity in Humans and Test Animals 79. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Lead in Human Populations 80. 14.1. Introduction 81. 14.2. Reproductive and Developmental Pb Toxicity in Human Populations 82. 14.3. Lead Effects on Reproductive Competence 83. 14.4. Experimental Animal Evidence of Pb Effects on Reproduction and Development 84. 14.5. Transplacental and Fetal Pb Toxicokinetics 85. The Nephrotoxicity of Lead in Human Populations 86. 15.1. Introduction and Context 87. 15.2. Acute Nephrotoxic Effects of Lead in Diverse Human Populations 88. 15.3. Late Chronic Pb Nephrotoxicity in Young Adults Poisoned as Children 89. 15.4. Chronic Lead Nephropathy in Adults with Occupational Exposures 90. 15.5. Lead Nephropathy in Individuals with GOUT AND HYPERTENSION 91. 15.6. Nephrotoxic Effects of Pb in General Human Populations 92. 15.7. Genetic Polymorphisms and Pb-Associated Occupational Nephrotoxicity 93. 15.8. Effects of Pb on Kidney Function in Children 94. 15.9. Experimental Animal Studies of Lead Nephropathy 95. Hematological Effects of Lead in Human Populations 96. 16.1. Introduction and Context 97. 16.2. Hematotoxic Effects of Lead in Clinical Lead Poisoning 98. 16.3. Recent Studies of Anemia in Human Populations via the Hb–Pb Exposure Relationship 99. 16.4. Lead-Induced Anemia via Altered Erythrocyte Production and Destruction 100. 16.5. Lead Effects on Heme Biosynthesis 101. 16.6. Experimental Animal Studies of the Hematotoxic Effects of Pb 102. Carcinogenic and Genotoxic Effects of Lead in Human Populations 103. 17.1. Introduction and Public Health Context 104. 17.2. Pb-Associated Cancer in Occupational Populations 105. 17.3. Case–Control Studies of Cancer and Pb in General Populations 106. 17.4. General Population Exposures to Environmental Lead 107. 17.5. Experimental Animal Studies of Pb Carcinogenicity 108. 17.6. Human Genotoxicity Studies of Lead in Occupational and General Populations 109. 17.7. Genotoxicity Studies of Lead Exposure in In Vivo Experimental Animal Systems 110. 17.8. In Vitro Studies of Pb Genotoxicity Using Cells in Culture 111. Immunotoxic Effects of Lead in Human Populations 112. 18.1. Introduction 113. 18.2. Effects of Pb on Host Resistance, Potential Hypersensitivity, and Potential Autoimmunity 114. 18.3. Pb Effects on Humoral Immunological Responses in Human Populations and Experimental Systems 115. 18.4. Cell-Mediated Immunotoxic Responses in Humans and Experimental Systems 116. Effects of Lead on Other Organs and Systems in Human Populations 117. 19.1. Effects of Lead on the Endocrine System of Humans and Experimental Animals 118. 19.2. Effects of Pb on the GI Tract in Humans and Animals 119. 19.3. Effects of Pb on the Hepatic System in Humans and Animals 120. Human Health Risk Assessment for Lead 121. 20.1. Introduction 122. 20.2. The Components of Conventional Human Health Risk Assessment 123. 20.3. Environmental Lead: Issues for Health Risk Assessment 124. 20.4. Organization of the Risk Chapters 125. 20.5. Interactive, Feedback Relationship of Lead Science and Human Health Risk Assessment for Lead 126. Hazard Characterization for Lead in Human Populations 127. 21.1. General Issues for Hazard Characterization: Lead as the Prototypic Model for Human Health Risk Assessment 128. 21.2. The Chronology of Human Health Hazard Characterization for Pb 129. 21.3. Clinical or Overt Toxic Effects of Lead in Humans 130. 21.4. The Transition Period for Characterizing Pb Toxicity in Humans 131. 21.5. The Current Era of Human Pb Toxicity: Subclinical Pb Toxicity in its Numerous Dimensions 132. 21.6. Pb Poisoning in Experimental Models of Lead Toxicity 133. 21.7. Identifying Relevant Toxic Effects in Humans for Lead Health Hazard Characterization 134. 21.8. Criteria for Pb-Based Causality of Toxic Effects 135. Dose–Response Relationships for Toxic Effects of Lead in Human Populations 136. 22.1. Introduction and Context 137. 22.2. The Dose/Exposure Component of Lead's Dose–Response Relationships 138. 22.3. Blood Pb as the Dose/Exposure Measure in Pb Dose–Toxic Response Relationships 139. 22.4. Bone Pb as the Dose/Exposure Measure in Pb Dose–Toxic Response Relationships 140. 22.5. Dose–Toxic Response Relationships for Children Based on Blood Lead 141. 22.6. Dose–Toxic Response Relationships for Adults Based on Blood Lead 142. 22.7. Dose–Toxic Response Relationships for Adults Based on Bone Lead 143. Exposure Characterizations for Lead in Specific Human Populations 144. 23.1. Introduction and Rationale 145. 23.2. Some Key Methodological and Interpretive Issues 146. 23.3. Illustrative Case Studies of Site-Specific Pb Exposure Characterizations in Risk Assessment 147. Health Risk Characterization of Lead Effects in Human Populations 148. 24.1. Introduction, Context, and Rationale 149. 24.2. Methodological and Interpretive Issues for Lead Health Risk Characterization in Humans 150. 24.3. Case Studies of Lead Health Risk Characterizations for Human Risk Groups 151. Legislative Aspects of Lead Regulation and Regulatory Policies 152. 25.1. Introduction 153. 25.2. Scientific and Regulatory Issues for U.S. Regulatory Initiatives and Policies for Pb in the Human Environment 154. 25.3. Interactive Feedback-Loop Relationships of Lead Science, Risk Assessment, and Regulation 155. 25.4. Historical Highlights of General and Specific U.S. Legislative Initiatives for Lead Regulation 156. 25.5. Case Studies of Lead Regulation: Medium-Specific Federal Statutes for Control of a Multimedia Contaminant 157. 25.6. International Control Efforts for Lead 158. 25.7. The Precautionary Principle and its Place in Lead Regulation Going Forward 159. Lead Regulation and Regulatory Policies 160. 26.1. A Brief Health Perspective on Lead in Paint 161. 26.2. Lead Paint Regulation in the United States 162. 26.3. International Lead Paint Regulation 163. Regulation and Regulatory Policies for Lead in Ambient Air 164. 27.1. A Brief Perspective on Ambient Air Pb 165. 27.2. U.S. Regulation of Lead in Ambient Air 166. 27.3. International Regulation of Lead in Ambient Air 167. Regulation and Regulatory Policies for Lead in Water 168. 28.1. A Brief Perspective on Ambient and Drinking Water Pb Regulation 169. 28.2. Regulation of Pb in U.S. Drinking Water and Water Supplies 170. 28.3. International Regulation of Pb in Drinking Water and Water Supplies 171. 28.4. Regulation of Lead in Bottled Water 172. Regulation and Regulatory Policies for Lead in Food 173. 29.1. A Brief Perspective on Lead in Human Diets 174. 29.2. Regulation of Dietary Lead in the United States 175. 29.3. Regulation of Dietary Pb in the European Union 176. 29.4. Regulation of Dietary Pb in Some Other Countries
The book presents a detailed assessment of the health science of lead and the human health risk assessment models for lead’s human health impacts, followed by an account of various regulatory efforts in the United States and elsewhere to eliminate or reduce human toxic exposures to lead. The science of lead as presented here covers releases of lead into the environment, lead’s movement through the environment to reach humans who are then exposed, and the spectrum of toxic effects, particularly low-level toxic effects, on the developing central nervous system of the very young child. The section on human health risk assessment deals with quantifying not only the dose-response relationships that underlie toxic responses to lead in sensitive populations but also with the likelihood of toxic responses vis-à-vis environmental lead at some level of exposure. This section includes a treatment of computer models of lead exposure, particularly those that use lead in whole blood as a key measure. Various models convert lead intake via various body compartments into measures of body lead burden. Such measures are then directly related to severity of injury.
The final section of the book deals with past and present regulatory efforts to control lead releases into the human environment. Current control efforts present a mixed picture. The most problematic issue is the continued presence of lead paint in older housing and lead in soils of urban and mining industry communities.
1. Introduction 2. 1.1. The Science of Lead and Human Health 3. 1.2. Lead and Human Health Risk Assessment 4. 1.3. Regulation of Lead in the Human Environment 5. 1.4. Organization of the Book 6. A Brief Early History of Lead as an Evolving Global Pollutant and Toxicant 7. 2.1. Earliest Records and Uses of Lead 8. 2.2. The Interplay of Lead Production, Use, and Environmental Contamination 9. 2.3. Lead Production, Use, and Exposures: The Middle Ages to the Industrial Revolution 10. 2.4. Lead Production and Uses in the Twentieth Century 11. Lead in the Human Environment 12. 3.1. Introduction 13. 3.2. Lead Production 14. 3.3. Modern Era Lead Consumption in the United States and Elsewhere 15. 3.4. Trends in U.S. and Global Pb Consumption 16. 3.5. Linkages Among Lead Production, Consumption, Dispersal, and Potential Exposures 17. Lead in the Human Environment 18. 4.1. Introduction 19. 4.2. Historical Perspective on Lead Sources/Emissions 20. 4.3. Current Lead Sources and Emissions 21. 4.4. Trends in Pb Emissions to Global and U.S. Environmental Compartments 22. Lead in the Human Environment 23. 5.1. Introduction 24. 5.2. Atmospheric Lead Transport 25. 5.3. Fate and Transport of Lead in Soils 26. 5.4. Fate and Transport of Lead in Dusts 27. 5.5. Fate and Transport of Lead in Plants 28. 5.6. Fate and Transport of Lead in Surface and Groundwaters 29. 5.7. Fate and Transport of Lead in Sediments 30. Lead Concentrations in Environmental Media Relevant to Human Lead Exposures 31. 6.1. Lead as Multimedia Pollutant 32. 6.2. Summary of Sampling and Laboratory Analytical Methods for Environmental Lead 33. 6.3. Concentrations of Lead in Environmental Media Producing Exposures 34. Lead Exposure in Human Populations 35. 7.1. Introduction 36. 7.2. Daily Lead Intakes by U.S. and Other Populations 37. Lead Exposure in Human Populations 38. 8.1. Introduction 39. 8.2. Absorption of Lead in Humans and Animals 40. 8.3. In Vivo Distribution of Lead in Humans and Experimental Animals 41. 8.4. Retention and Excretion of Lead in Human Populations 42. 8.5. Lead–Nutrient Interactions in Human Populations 43. 8.6. The Role of Genetic Variability in Pb Toxicokinetics 44. 8.7. Toxicokinetics and Biomarkers of Human Pb Exposure 45. Predictive Modeling Approaches for Assessing Human Lead Exposure 46. 9.1. Introduction 47. 9.2. Ad Hoc/Statistical Models 48. 9.3. Mechanistic/Biokinetic Models 49. The Environmental Epidemiology of Human Lead Exposure 50. 10.1. Introduction 51. 10.2. Early Epidemiological Studies of Human Lead Exposure 52. 10.3. Contemporary Pb Exposure Surveys and Their Various U.S. and International Correlates 53. 10.4. Childhood Pb Screening Programs and Their Various Correlates 54. 10.5. Epidemiological Studies of PbB/Pb Source Relationships 55. 10.6. Temporal Trends 56. Lead Toxicity in Humans 57. 11.1. Introduction 58. 11.2. The Scientific and Public Health Awareness of Lead as a Human Health Hazard 59. 11.3. Early Experimental Animal Studies Documenting and Characterizing Lead Toxicity 60. 11.4. Scientific and Public Health Awareness of Pb Poisoning From the Second Half of the Twentieth Century to the Present 61. 11.5. Awareness of Lead Poisoning Among the General Public and its Social Institutions 62. 11.6. The Contentious Relationships between Lead's Economics and Human Health Hazards: Lessons from Case Studies 63. 11.7. Sources and Control of Human Health Hazard Information for Lead 64. 11.8. Establishment of Active Public Roles in Pb Poisoning Awareness, in Advancing Pb-Poisoning Research and in Creating Stable Mechanisms for Human Health Protection 65. Neurotoxicity of Lead in Human Populations 66. 12.1. Introduction 67. 12.2. Lead Neurotoxicity in Children 68. 12.3. Lead Neurotoxicity in Adults 69. 12.4. Experimental Animal Models of Lead Neurotoxicity in Human Populations 70. 12.5. General and Neural-Specific Mechanisms of Pb Toxicity in the Human Nervous System 71. 12.6. Some Persisting and New Directions for Lead Neurotoxicity in Human Populations 72. Cardiovascular Toxicity of Lead in Human Populations 73. 13.1. Introduction 74. 13.2. Epidemiology of Cardiovascular Toxicity in Adult Occupational Populations 75. 13.3. Pb Cardiovascular Effects in General Adult Populations 76. 13.4. Epidemiological Studies of Lead's Cardiovascular Effects in Children 77. 13.5. Experimental Animal Studies of Cardiovascular Effects of Lead 78. 13.6. Some Likely Toxicological Mechanisms of Pb-Associated Cardiovascular Toxicity in Humans and Test Animals 79. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Lead in Human Populations 80. 14.1. Introduction 81. 14.2. Reproductive and Developmental Pb Toxicity in Human Populations 82. 14.3. Lead Effects on Reproductive Competence 83. 14.4. Experimental Animal Evidence of Pb Effects on Reproduction and Development 84. 14.5. Transplacental and Fetal Pb Toxicokinetics 85. The Nephrotoxicity of Lead in Human Populations 86. 15.1. Introduction and Context 87. 15.2. Acute Nephrotoxic Effects of Lead in Diverse Human Populations 88. 15.3. Late Chronic Pb Nephrotoxicity in Young Adults Poisoned as Children 89. 15.4. Chronic Lead Nephropathy in Adults with Occupational Exposures 90. 15.5. Lead Nephropathy in Individuals with GOUT AND HYPERTENSION 91. 15.6. Nephrotoxic Effects of Pb in General Human Populations 92. 15.7. Genetic Polymorphisms and Pb-Associated Occupational Nephrotoxicity 93. 15.8. Effects of Pb on Kidney Function in Children 94. 15.9. Experimental Animal Studies of Lead Nephropathy 95. Hematological Effects of Lead in Human Populations 96. 16.1. Introduction and Context 97. 16.2. Hematotoxic Effects of Lead in Clinical Lead Poisoning 98. 16.3. Recent Studies of Anemia in Human Populations via the Hb–Pb Exposure Relationship 99. 16.4. Lead-Induced Anemia via Altered Erythrocyte Production and Destruction 100. 16.5. Lead Effects on Heme Biosynthesis 101. 16.6. Experimental Animal Studies of the Hematotoxic Effects of Pb 102. Carcinogenic and Genotoxic Effects of Lead in Human Populations 103. 17.1. Introduction and Public Health Context 104. 17.2. Pb-Associated Cancer in Occupational Populations 105. 17.3. Case–Control Studies of Cancer and Pb in General Populations 106. 17.4. General Population Exposures to Environmental Lead 107. 17.5. Experimental Animal Studies of Pb Carcinogenicity 108. 17.6. Human Genotoxicity Studies of Lead in Occupational and General Populations 109. 17.7. Genotoxicity Studies of Lead Exposure in In Vivo Experimental Animal Systems 110. 17.8. In Vitro Studies of Pb Genotoxicity Using Cells in Culture 111. Immunotoxic Effects of Lead in Human Populations 112. 18.1. Introduction 113. 18.2. Effects of Pb on Host Resistance, Potential Hypersensitivity, and Potential Autoimmunity 114. 18.3. Pb Effects on Humoral Immunological Responses in Human Populations and Experimental Systems 115. 18.4. Cell-Mediated Immunotoxic Responses in Humans and Experimental Systems 116. Effects of Lead on Other Organs and Systems in Human Populations 117. 19.1. Effects of Lead on the Endocrine System of Humans and Experimental Animals 118. 19.2. Effects of Pb on the GI Tract in Humans and Animals 119. 19.3. Effects of Pb on the Hepatic System in Humans and Animals 120. Human Health Risk Assessment for Lead 121. 20.1. Introduction 122. 20.2. The Components of Conventional Human Health Risk Assessment 123. 20.3. Environmental Lead: Issues for Health Risk Assessment 124. 20.4. Organization of the Risk Chapters 125. 20.5. Interactive, Feedback Relationship of Lead Science and Human Health Risk Assessment for Lead 126. Hazard Characterization for Lead in Human Populations 127. 21.1. General Issues for Hazard Characterization: Lead as the Prototypic Model for Human Health Risk Assessment 128. 21.2. The Chronology of Human Health Hazard Characterization for Pb 129. 21.3. Clinical or Overt Toxic Effects of Lead in Humans 130. 21.4. The Transition Period for Characterizing Pb Toxicity in Humans 131. 21.5. The Current Era of Human Pb Toxicity: Subclinical Pb Toxicity in its Numerous Dimensions 132. 21.6. Pb Poisoning in Experimental Models of Lead Toxicity 133. 21.7. Identifying Relevant Toxic Effects in Humans for Lead Health Hazard Characterization 134. 21.8. Criteria for Pb-Based Causality of Toxic Effects 135. Dose–Response Relationships for Toxic Effects of Lead in Human Populations 136. 22.1. Introduction and Context 137. 22.2. The Dose/Exposure Component of Lead's Dose–Response Relationships 138. 22.3. Blood Pb as the Dose/Exposure Measure in Pb Dose–Toxic Response Relationships 139. 22.4. Bone Pb as the Dose/Exposure Measure in Pb Dose–Toxic Response Relationships 140. 22.5. Dose–Toxic Response Relationships for Children Based on Blood Lead 141. 22.6. Dose–Toxic Response Relationships for Adults Based on Blood Lead 142. 22.7. Dose–Toxic Response Relationships for Adults Based on Bone Lead 143. Exposure Characterizations for Lead in Specific Human Populations 144. 23.1. Introduction and Rationale 145. 23.2. Some Key Methodological and Interpretive Issues 146. 23.3. Illustrative Case Studies of Site-Specific Pb Exposure Characterizations in Risk Assessment 147. Health Risk Characterization of Lead Effects in Human Populations 148. 24.1. Introduction, Context, and Rationale 149. 24.2. Methodological and Interpretive Issues for Lead Health Risk Characterization in Humans 150. 24.3. Case Studies of Lead Health Risk Characterizations for Human Risk Groups 151. Legislative Aspects of Lead Regulation and Regulatory Policies 152. 25.1. Introduction 153. 25.2. Scientific and Regulatory Issues for U.S. Regulatory Initiatives and Policies for Pb in the Human Environment 154. 25.3. Interactive Feedback-Loop Relationships of Lead Science, Risk Assessment, and Regulation 155. 25.4. Historical Highlights of General and Specific U.S. Legislative Initiatives for Lead Regulation 156. 25.5. Case Studies of Lead Regulation: Medium-Specific Federal Statutes for Control of a Multimedia Contaminant 157. 25.6. International Control Efforts for Lead 158. 25.7. The Precautionary Principle and its Place in Lead Regulation Going Forward 159. Lead Regulation and Regulatory Policies 160. 26.1. A Brief Health Perspective on Lead in Paint 161. 26.2. Lead Paint Regulation in the United States 162. 26.3. International Lead Paint Regulation 163. Regulation and Regulatory Policies for Lead in Ambient Air 164. 27.1. A Brief Perspective on Ambient Air Pb 165. 27.2. U.S. Regulation of Lead in Ambient Air 166. 27.3. International Regulation of Lead in Ambient Air 167. Regulation and Regulatory Policies for Lead in Water 168. 28.1. A Brief Perspective on Ambient and Drinking Water Pb Regulation 169. 28.2. Regulation of Pb in U.S. Drinking Water and Water Supplies 170. 28.3. International Regulation of Pb in Drinking Water and Water Supplies 171. 28.4. Regulation of Lead in Bottled Water 172. Regulation and Regulatory Policies for Lead in Food 173. 29.1. A Brief Perspective on Lead in Human Diets 174. 29.2. Regulation of Dietary Lead in the United States 175. 29.3. Regulation of Dietary Pb in the European Union 176. 29.4. Regulation of Dietary Pb in Some Other Countries
