Sleisenger and Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease

1. Introduction - p. 244 2. Definition - p. 244 3. Evaluation - p. 250 4. Physical Examination - p. 252 5. Differential Diagnosis - p. 252 6. Diagnostic Approach - p. 254 7. Management - p. 262 8. 18. Intestinal Gas - p. 264 9. 19. Fecal Incontinence - p. 273 10. Epidemiology - p. 273 11. Pathophysiology - p. 273 12. Evaluation - p. 277 13. Treatment - p. 283 14. 20. Constipation - p. 292 15. Definition and Presenting Symptoms - p. 292 16. Epidemiology - p. 293 17. Risk Factors - p. 293 18. Colonic Function - p. 295 19. Classification - p. 297 20. Pathophysiology - p. 297 21. Causes - p. 298 22. Clinical Assessment - p. 303 23. Diagnostic Tests - p. 304 24. Defecography - p. 306 25. Treatment - p. 307 26. 21. Gastrointestinal Bleeding - p. 319 27. Initial Assessment and Management of Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding - p. 319 28. Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding - p. 326 29. Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding - p. 342 30. Risk Factors and Risk Stratification - p. 343 31. Mortality - p. 343 32. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approach - p. 344 33. Causes and Management - p. 345 34. Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding - p. 350 35. Causes - p. 351 36. Diagnostic Tests - p. 353 37. Obscure Occult Gastrointestinal Bleeding and Iron Deficiency Anemia - p. 355 38. 22. Jaundice - p. 357 39. 23. Factitious Gastrointestinal Diseases - p. 369 40. Part IV. Processes Involving Multiple Organs - p. P4 41. 24. Oral Diseases and Oral Manifestations of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases - p. 378 42. 25. Cutaneous Manifestations of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases - p. 388 43. 26. Diverticula of the Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, and Small Intestine - p. 401 44. 27. Abdominal Hernias and Gastric Volvulus - p. 410 45. Diaphragmatic Hernias - p. 410 46. Gastric Volvulus - p. 416 47. Inguinal and Femoral Hernias - p. 418 48. Other Ventral Hernias - p. 421 49. Incisional Hernias - p. 421 50. Pelvic and Perineal Hernias - p. 424 51. Lumbar Hernias - p. 424 52. Internal Hernias - p. 425 53. 28. Foreign Bodies, Bezoars, and Caustic Ingestions - p. 429 54. 29. Abdominal Abscesses and Gastrointestinal Fistulas - p. 442 55. 30. Eosinophilic Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract - p. 455 56. 31. Protein-Losing Gastroenteropathy - p. 462 57. 32. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Manifestations of Coronavirus Infection - p. 469 58. 33. Gastrointestinal Consequences of Infection With Human Immunodeficiency Virus - p. 477 59. 34. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Complications of Solid Organ and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation - p. 489 60. Complications of Solid Organ Transplantation - p. 489 61. Kidney and Kidney/Pancreas Transplantation - p. 491 62. Liver Transplantation - p. 492 63. Heart, Lung, and Heart-Lung Transplantation - p. 493 64. Intestinal Transplantation - p. 494 65. Problem-Oriented Approach to Diagnosis in Solid Organ Transplantation Recipients - p. 494 66. Complications of Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation - p. 496 67. 35. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Manifestations of Systemic Diseases - p. 511 68. Collagen Vascular and Inflammatory Diseases - p. 511 69. Oncologic and Hematologic Diseases - p. 520 70. Endocrine Diseases - p. 527 71. Disorders of Lipid Metabolism - p. 530 72. Renal Diseases - p. 531 73. Neurologic Diseases - p. 532 74. Pulmonary Disease - p. 534 75. Critical Illness - p. 534 76. Sepsis - p. 535 77. Cardiovascular Diseases - p. 535 78. Infiltrative Diseases - p. 536 79. Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases - p. 541 80. 36. Vascular Lesions of the Gastrointestinal Tract - p. 543 81. 37. Surgical Peritonitis and Other Diseases of the Peritoneum, Mesentery, Omentum, and Diaphragm - p. 563 82. 38. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Disorders in the Pregnant Patient - p. 577 83. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Function in Normal Pregnancy - p. 577 84. Drug Safety in Pregnant Patients - p. 578 85. Endoscopy During Pregnancy - p. 578 86. Imaging and Radiation Exposure During Pregnancy - p. 578 87. GI Disorders and Pregnancy - p. 579 88. Gallbladder and Pancreatic Disorders and Pregnancy - p. 582 89. Hepatic Disorders Unique to Pregnancy - p. 582 90. Other Hepatic Disorders and Pregnancy - p. 587 91. 39. Acute and Chronic Gastrointestinal Side Effects of Radiation Therapy - p. 591 92. 40. Preparation for and Complications of GI Endoscopy - p. 605 93. Part V. Neoplasia Involving Multiple Organs - p. P5 94. 41. Gastrointestinal Lymphomas∗ - p. 615 95. 42. Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors - p. 632 96. Pathology - p. 632 97. Molecular Pathogenesis - p. 634 98. Molecular Pharmacology - p. 636 99. Epidemiology - p. 636 100. Clinical Features - p. 636 101. Diagnosis - p. 638 102. Treatment - p. 640 103. Special Considerations - p. 646 104. 43. Neuroendocrine Tumors - p. 647 105. Historical Aspects - p. 647 106. Epidemiology - p. 647 107. Origin and Histochemical Features - p. 648 108. Classification - p. 649 109. Molecular Pathogenesis - p. 650 110. Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia and Other Inherited Syndromes - p. 650 111. Functional Tumors - p. 651 112. Gastrinomas - p. 654 113. Glucagonomas - p. 657 114. VIPomas - p. 659 115. Other Functional pNETs - p. 660 116. Nonfunctional pNETs - p. 660 117. GI-NETs (Carcinoids) - p. 660 118. Carcinoid Syndrome - p. 666 119. Tumor Localization - p. 668 120. Treatment of Metastatic Disease - p. 669 121. 44. Enterocolitis and Hepatitis Induced by Cancer Immunotherapy - p. 673 122. Part VI. Esophagus - p. P6 123. 45. Anatomy, Histology, Embryology, and Developmental Anomalies of the Esophagus - p. 681 124. 46. Esophageal Neuromuscular Function and Motility Disorders - p. 694 125. 47. Esophageal Disorders Caused by Medications, Trauma, and Infection - p. 720 126. 48. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease - p. 729 127. Epidemiology - p. 729 128. Health care Impact - p. 731 129. Clinical Features - p. 737 130. Differential Diagnosis - p. 738 131. Associated Conditions - p. 738 132. Diagnosis - p. 739 133. Clinical Course - p. 743 134. Complications - p. 743 135. Treatment of Uncomplicated Disease - p. 744 136. Treatment of Peptic Esophageal Strictures - p. 750 137. 49. Barrett Esophagus - p. 751 138. 50. Esophageal Tumors - p. 761 139. Conflicts of Interest and Acknowledgement - p. 761 140. Carcinomas - p. 761 141. Other Malignant Epithelial Tumors - p. 778 142. Benign Epithelial Tumors - p. 778 143. Malignant Nonepithelial Tumors - p. 779 144. Benign Nonepithelial Tumors - p. 779 145. Part VII. Stomach and Duodenum - p. P7 146. 51. Anatomy, Histology, and Developmental Anomalies of the Stomach and Duodenum - p. 781 147. 52. Gastric Neuromuscular Function and Neuromuscular Disorders - p. 797 148. Electrophysiologic Basis for Normal Gastric Neuromuscular Function - p. 797 149. Regulation of Gastric Neuromuscular Activity After a Meal - p. 805 150. Gastric Sensory Activities - p. 809 151. The Stomach and the Regulation of Food Intake, Hunger, and Satiety - p. 809 152. Developmental Aspects of Gastric Neuromuscular Function - p. 811 153. Developmental Aspects of Gastric Neuromuscular Function - p. 811 154. Assessment of Gastric Neuromuscular Function - p. 812 155. Neuromuscular Disorders of the Stomach - p. 814 156. Diagnosis of Gastric Neuromuscular Disorders - p. 820 157. Treatment - p. 822 158. 53. Gastric Secretion - p. 827 159. Functional Anatomy - p. 827 160. Acid Secretion - p. 829 161. Nonacid Gastric Secretions - p. 847 162. 54. Gastritis and Gastropathy - p. 851 163. Definitions - p. 851 164. Acute Gastritis - p. 851 165. Chronic Gastritis - p. 852 166. Carditis - p. 862 167. Other Infectious Causes of Gastritis - p. 862 168. Granulomatous Gastritis - p. 866 169. Distinctive Causes of Gastritis - p. 867 170. Gastritis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease - p. 869 171. Gastritis Cystica Profunda - p. 870 172. Allergic Gastritis - p. 870 173. Reactive Gastropathies - p. 870 174. Gastric Antral Vascular Ectasia - p. 870 175. Hyperplastic Gastropathies, Including Ménétrier’s Disease - p. 873 176. Portal Hypertensive Gastropathy - p. 875 177. Differential Diagnosis - p. 875 178. Treatment - p. 875 179. 55. Peptic Ulcer Disease - p. 882 180. 56. Adenocarcinoma of the Stomach and Other Gastric Tumors - p. 897 181. Epidemiology - p. 897 182. Etiology and Pathogenesis - p. 898 183. Hp Infection - p. 900 184. Dietary Risk Factors - p. 902 185. Cigarette Smoking - p. 902 186. Alcohol - p. 902 187. Obesity - p. 903 188. Genetic Factors - p. 903 189. Tumor Genetics - p. 904 190. Premalignant Conditions - p. 906 191. Screening and Surveillance - p. 909 192. Prevention - p. 910 193. Clinical Features - p. 911 194. Diagnosis - p. 912 195. Classification and Staging - p. 913 196. Prognosis and Treatment - p. 915 197. Miscellaneous Gastric Tumors - p. 920 198. Part VIII. Pancreas - p. P8 199. 57. Anatomy, Histology, Embryology, and Developmental Anomalies of the Pancreas - p. 921 200. 58. Exocrine Pancreatic Secretion - p. 932 201. 59. Genetic Disorders of the Pancreas and Pancreatic Disorders in Childhood - p. 941 202. Background - p. 941 203. Definitions and Terminology - p. 941 204. γ-Glutamyl Transpeptidase (GGT1) - p. 957 205. Integration of Genetics and Patient Management - p. 959 206. Pancreatitis in Children - p. 960 207. Clinical Management of Mendelian Disorders of the Pancreas - p. 961 208. Rare Genetic Syndromes With Pancreatic Pathology - p. 972 209. Familial Metabolic Syndromes Associated With Recurrent Acute and Chronic Pancreatitis - p. 973 210. History of pancreatic disease diagnosis and management based on medical paradigms - p. 973 211. 60. Acute Pancreatitis - p. 974 212. Incidence and Burden of Acute Pancreatitis - p. 974 213. Definitions - p. 975 214. Acute Necrotic Collections and Walled-Off Pancreatic Necrosis - p. 976 215. Acute Nonnecrotic Fluid Collections and Pseudocysts - p. 976 216. Why Distinguish Between Necrotic and Nonnecrotic Collections? - p. 976 217. Clinical Course of Acute Pancreatitis - p. 976 218. Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology - p. 977 219. Initiating Cellular Events - p. 977 220. Host Response - p. 980 221. Predisposing Conditions - p. 982 222. Vascular Disease - p. 984 223. Clinical Features of AP - p. 987 224. Differential Diagnosis - p. 988 225. Laboratory Diagnosis - p. 988 226. Diagnostic Imaging - p. 990 227. Distinguishing Alcoholic From Gallstone Pancreatitis - p. 991 228. Predictors of Disease Severity - p. 991 229. Novel Biomarkers - p. 992 230. Treatment - p. 992 231. Antibiotics - p. 995 232. Urgent Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) - p. 995 233. 61. Chronic Pancreatitis - p. 1000 234. Epidemiology - p. 1000 235. Pathology - p. 1001 236. Pathophysiology - p. 1001 237. Etiology - p. 1003 238. Clinical Features - p. 1010 239. Physical Examination - p. 1012 240. Diagnosis - p. 1013 241. Diagnostic Strategy - p. 1018 242. Treatment - p. 1018 243. Complications - p. 1025 244. 62. Pancreatic Cancer, Cystic Neoplasms, and Other Tumors - p. 1030 245. Pancreatic Cancer - p. 1030 246. Pancreatic Cystic Neoplasms - p. 1042 247. Other Pancreatic Tumors - p. 1050 248. 63. Endoscopic Treatment of Pancreatic Disease - p. 1051 249. Part IX. Biliary Tract - p. P9 250. 64. Anatomy, Histology, Embryology, Developmental Anomalies, and Pediatric Disorders of the Biliary Tract - p. 1059 251. Embryology of the Liver and Biliary Tract - p. 1059 252. Anatomy and Histology of the Biliary Tree - p. 1061 253. Developmental Anomalies - p. 1064 254. Approach to Disorders of the Biliary Tract in Infants and Children - p. 1064 255. Pediatric Disorders of the Bile Ducts - p. 1066 256. Pediatric Disorders of the Gallbladder - p. 1077 257. 65. Biliary Tract Motor Function and Dysfunction - p. 1081 258. 66. Bile Formation and Bile Acid Cycling in Health and Disease - p. 1087 259. 67. Gallstone Disease - p. 1103 260. Types of Gallstones - p. 1103 261. Epidemiology - p. 1103 262. Composition and Abnormalities of Bile - p. 1108 263. Pathophysiology - p. 1112 264. Genetics - p. 1116 265. Pigment Stones - p. 1117 266. Natural History - p. 1121 267. Diagnosis - p. 1122 268. Clinical Disorders - p. 1129 269. Uncommon Complications - p. 1134 270. 68. Treatment of Gallstone Disease - p. 1136 271. 69. Acalculous Biliary Pain, Acute Acalculous Cholecystitis, Cholesterolosis, Adenomyomatosis, and Gallbladder Polyps - p. 1154 272. 70. Primary and Secondary Sclerosing Cholangitis - p. 1168 273. Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis - p. 1168 274. Secondary Sclerosing Cholangitis - p. 1184 275. 71. Tumors of the Bile Ducts, Gallbladder, and Ampulla - p. 1187 276. 72. Endoscopic and Radiologic Treatment of Biliary Disease∗ - p. 1205 277. Volume 2 - p. V2 278. Part X. Liver - p. P10 279. 73. Embryology, Anatomy, Histology, and Developmental Anomalies of the Liver - p. 1221 280. 74. Liver Physiology and Energy Metabolism - p. 1228 281. 75. Liver Chemistry and Function Tests - p. 1249 282. 76. Overview of Cirrhosis - p. 1259 283. 77. Hemochromatosis - p. 1269 284. 78. Wilson Disease - p. 1279 285. 79. Other Inherited Metabolic Disorders of the Liver - p. 1289 286. Clinical Features of Metabolic Liver Disease - p. 1289 287. α1-Antitrypsin Deficiency - p. 1289 288. Glycogen Storage Diseases - p. 1292 289. Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation - p. 1295 290. Porphyrias - p. 1296 291. Tyrosinemia - p. 1300 292. Urea Cycle Defects - p. 1301 293. Bile Acid Synthesis and Transport Defects - p. 1304 294. Cystic Fibrosis - p. 1308 295. Mitochondrial Liver Diseases - p. 1309 296. 80. Hepatitis A - p. 1311 297. 81. Hepatitis B - p. 1318 298. Introduction - p. 1318 299. Epidemiology - p. 1318 300. Clinical Outcomes - p. 1319 301. Virology - p. 1320 302. Pathogenesis - p. 1323 303. Natural History - p. 1324 304. Clinical and Pathologic Features - p. 1326 305. Diagnosis - p. 1330 306. Treatment - p. 1331 307. Prevention - p. 1344 308. 82. Hepatitis C - p. 1347 309. Virology - p. 1347 310. Epidemiology - p. 1350 311. Pathogenesis - p. 1352 312. Clinical Features - p. 1353 313. Diagnosis - p. 1355 314. Liver Biopsy and Noninvasive Assessment of Fibrosis - p. 1356 315. Natural History - p. 1357 316. Treatment - p. 1359 317. 83. Hepatitis D - p. 1375 318. 84. Hepatitis E - p. 1386 319. 85. Hepatitis Caused by Other Viruses - p. 1393 320. 86. Bacterial, Parasitic, and Fungal Infections of the Liver, Including Liver Abscesses - p. 1401 321. 87. Vascular Diseases of the Liver - p. 1420 322. 88. Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease - p. 1436 323. Epidemiology - p. 1436 324. Spectrum of Disease - p. 1437 325. Pathogenesis - p. 1437 326. Diagnosis of Alcohol Misuse - p. 1443 327. Diagnosis of Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease - p. 1444 328. Cofactors That May Influence Progression of Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease - p. 1446 329. Prognosis - p. 1447 330. Treatment - p. 1449 331. 89. Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease/Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease - p. 1456 332. 90. Liver Disease Caused by Drugs - p. 1473 333. Hepatic Drug Metabolism - p. 1473 334. Liver Disease Caused by Drugs - p. 1475 335. Dose-Dependent Hepatotoxicity - p. 1487 336. Drug-Induced Acute Hepatitis - p. 1491 337. Drug-Induced Granulomatous Hepatitis - p. 1497 338. Drug-Induced Chronic Hepatitis - p. 1498 339. Drug-Induced Acute Cholestasis - p. 1499 340. Drug-Induced Chronic Cholestasis - p. 1501 341. Drug-Induced Steatohepatitis and Hepatic Fibrosis - p. 1501 342. Drug-Induced Vascular Toxicity - p. 1504 343. Liver Tumors - p. 1505 344. 91. Liver Disease Caused by Anesthetics, Chemicals, Toxins, and Herbal and Dietary Supplements - p. 1506 345. Anesthetic Agents - p. 1506 346. Chemicals - p. 1508 347. Metals - p. 1513 348. Drugs of Abuse - p. 1513 349. Botanical and Environmental Hepatotoxins - p. 1514 350. Vitamins - p. 1516 351. Herbal, Dietary, Weight-Loss, and Body-Building Supplements - p. 1517 352. 92. Autoimmune Hepatitis - p. 1524 353. 93. Primary Biliary Cholangitis - p. 1541 354. 94. Portal Hypertension and Variceal Bleeding - p. 1555 355. Normal Portal Circulation - p. 1555 356. Hemodynamic Principles of Portal Hypertension - p. 1556 357. Measurement of Portal Pressure - p. 1560 358. Detection of Varices - p. 1562 359. Causes of Portal Hypertension - p. 1564 360. Clinical Assessment - p. 1567 361. Treatment - p. 1567 362. Management of Specific Causes of Portal Hypertension-Related Bleeding - p. 1575 363. 95. Ascites and Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis - p. 1584 364. 96. Hepatic Encephalopathy, Hepatorenal Syndrome, Hepatopulmonary Syndrome, and Other Systemic Complications of Liver Disease - p. 1599 365. Hepatic Encephalopathy - p. 1599 366. Hepatorenal Syndrome - p. 1602 367. Hepatopulmonary Syndrome and Portopulmonary Hypertension - p. 1606 368. Cirrhotic Cardiomyopathy - p. 1609 369. Endocrine Dysfunction - p. 1611 370. Bone Disease - p. 1612 371. Coagulation Disorders - p. 1612 372. 97. Acute Liver Failure - p. 1614 373. 98. Hepatic Tumors and Cysts - p. 1629 374. Malignant Tumors - p. 1629 375. Benign Tumors - p. 1645 376. Tumor-Like Hepatic Lesions - p. 1650 377. Hepatic Cysts - p. 1651 378. Approach to the Patient with a Hepatic Mass - p. 1653 379. 99. Liver Transplantation - p. 1655 380. Part XI. Small and Large Intestine - p. P11 381. 100. Anatomy, Histology, Embryology, and Developmental Anomalies of the Small and Large Intestine - p. 1674 382. 101. Small Intestinal Motor and Sensory Function and Dysfunction - p. 1704 383. 102. Colonic Motor and Sensory Function and Dysfunction - p. 1721 384. 103. Intestinal Electrolyte Absorption and Secretion - p. 1738 385. Intestinal Architecture and Transport - p. 1738 386. Basic Epithelial Cell Model - p. 1739 387. Segmental Heterogeneity of Transport - p. 1741 388. Movement Across the Intestinal Epithelium - p. 1742 389. Tight and Leaky Epithelia - p. 1743 390. Transepithelial Transport - p. 1743 391. Transcellular Transport - p. 1744 392. Water Movement - p. 1744 393. Channels, Carriers, and Pumps - p. 1744 394. Ion Transporters - p. 1745 395. Extracellular Regulation: Microbial, Autocrine, Luminal, Paracrine, Immunologic, Neural, and Endocrine Systems (MALPINES) - p. 1754 396. Systemic Effects - p. 1758 397. Osmotic Effects - p. 1758 398. Specific Regulatory Factors - p. 1759 399. Intracellular Mediators - p. 1763 400. Epithelial Regulation in Context - p. 1765 401. 104. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat - p. 1766 402. 105. Digestion and Absorption of Micronutrients - p. 1788 403. Water-Soluble Vitamins - p. 1788 404. Fat-Soluble Vitamins - p. 1800 405. Minerals and Trace Elements - p. 1805 406. 106. Maldigestion and Malabsorption - p. 1811.e8 407. Etiology and Pathophysiology - p. 1812 408. Fats - p. 1813 409. Proteins and Amino Acids - p. 1814 410. Carbohydrates - p. 1814 411. Vitamins - p. 1815 412. Minerals - p. 1815 413. Mechanisms that Compensate for Malabsorption - p. 1816 414. Clinical Features and Evaluation - p. 1817 415. Malabsorption in Specific Situations and Disease States - p. 1831 416. General Approach to Management - p. 1844 417. 107. Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth - p. 1846 418. 108. Short Bowel Syndrome - p. 1856 419. 109. Celiac Disease - p. 1873 420. Definitions - p. 1873 421. History of Celiac Disease - p. 1873 422. Epidemiology - p. 1874 423. Pathology - p. 1874 424. Pathogenesis - p. 1876 425. Clinical Features - p. 1878 426. Diagnosis - p. 1881 427. Differential Diagnosis - p. 1885 428. Treatment - p. 1887 429. Nonresponsive Celiac Disease - p. 1889 430. Refractory Celiac Disease - p. 1889 431. Celiac Disease and Malignancy - p. 1892 432. Prognosis - p. 1893 433. Future Therapies - p. 1893 434. 110. Tropical Diarrhea and Malabsorption - p. 1894 435. 111. Whipple Disease - p. 1909 436. 112. Infectious Enteritis and Proctocolitis - p. 1919 437. Susceptibility to Intestinal Infection - p. 1919 438. General Principles of Infectious Enteritis and Proctocolitis - p. 1921 439. Enterotoxigenic Pathogens - p. 1925 440. Invasive Pathogens - p. 1933 441. Sexually Transmitted Infectious Proctitis - p. 1942 442. Viral Pathogens - p. 1943 443. Travelers’ Diarrhea - p. 1945 444. Tuberculosis of the Intestinal Tract - p. 1946 445. Overview of Treatment - p. 1948 446. 113. Food Poisoning - p. 1950 447. 114. Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea and Clostridioides difficile Infection - p. 1958 448. Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea - p. 1958 449. Pseudomembranous Enterocolitis - p. 1959 450. Clostridioides difficile Infection - p. 1959 451. 115. Intestinal Protozoa - p. 1975 452. 116. Intestinal Worms - p. 1988 453. Introduction - p. 1988 454. Nematodes - p. 1989 455. Hookworms (Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale, A. Ceylanicum, and A. Caninum) - p. 1993 456. Cestodes - p. 1999 457. Trematodes - p. 2002 458. Liver Flukes - p. 2003 459. 117. Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases - p. 2008 460. Epidemiology - p. 2008 461. Etiology and Pathogenesis - p. 2011 462. Establishing the Diagnosis in IBD - p. 2027 463. Differential Diagnosis of IBD - p. 2034 464. Measuring Disease Activity in IBD - p. 2037 465. 118. Management of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases - p. 2040 466. Medical Therapy - p. 2040 467. Future Directions for Medical Therapy - p. 2065 468. Surgical Therapy - p. 2065 469. Management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease-Related Complications - p. 2069 470. Management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Special Situations - p. 2075 471. 119. Ileostomies, Colostomies, and Anastomoses - p. 2077 472. 120. Intestinal Ischemia - p. 2085 473. Anatomy of the Splanchnic Circulation - p. 2085 474. Pathophysiology and Pathology - p. 2086 475. Outcomes - p. 2095 476. Focal Segmental Ischemia of the Small Intestine - p. 2098 477. Chronic Mesenteric Ischemia (Intestinal Angina) - p. 2108 478. Vasculitis and Angiopathy of the Splanchnic Circulation - p. 2110 479. 121. Intestinal Ulcerations - p. 2113 480. 122. Appendicitis - p. 2127 481. 123. Diverticular Disease of the Colon - p. 2136 482. 124. Irritable Bowel Syndrome - p. 2151 483. 125. Intestinal Obstruction - p. 2166 484. 126. Ileus and Pseudo-Obstruction Syndromes - p. 2187 485. Ileus - p. 2187 486. Acute Colonic Pseudo-Obstruction - p. 2192 487. Megacolon and Megarectum - p. 2206 488. 127. Tumors of the Small Intestine - p. 2208 489. 128. Colonic Polyps and Polyposis Syndromes - p. 2227 490. Conventional Adenomas - p. 2227 491. Sessile Serrated Adenomas and Hyperplastic Polyps - p. 2241 492. Nonneoplastic Polyps and Polypoid Lesions - p. 2246 493. 129. Colorectal Cancer - p. 2261 494. Epidemiology - p. 2261 495. Etiology - p. 2263 496. Biology - p. 2270 497. Familial Colorectal Cancer - p. 2277 498. Predisposing Factors - p. 2278 499. Pathology - p. 2282 500. Natural History and Staging - p. 2283 501. Prognosis - p. 2286 502. Clinical Features - p. 2289 503. Diagnosis and Screening - p. 2290 504. Treatment - p. 2300 505. Other Malignant Colonic Tumors - p. 2308 506. 130. Other Diseases of the Colon - p. 2309 507. 131. Anal Diseases - p. 2324 508. Part XII. Additional Treatments for Patients with Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease - p. P12 509. 132. Complementary, Alternative, and Integrative Medicine - p. 2343 510. Definitions - p. 2343 511. Epidemiology - p. 2343 512. Demographics of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Users - p. 2343 513. Types of Therapies - p. 2344 514. Rationale for and Satisfaction With Use - p. 2344 515. Patient-Provider Communication Regarding CAM - p. 2345 516. Physician Knowledge of CAM - p. 2345 517. Gastrointestinal Disorders Amenable to Complementary and Alternative Therapies - p. 2345 518. Constipation and Diarrhea - p. 2352 519. Cannabis and Cannabinoids - p. 2358 520. Regulation of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Therapies - p. 2359 521. Safety of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Therapies - p. 2360 522. Medical Misinformation, Social Media, and CAM - p. 2360 523. Conclusion - p. 2360 524. Resources for Healthcare Professionals - p. 2360 525. 133. Palliative Care Medicine in Patients With Advanced Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Disease - p. 2361 526. Index - p. I1