The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes

1. 1 Introduction 2. 2 The Beginnings 3. 3 The Legends and Hell 4. 4 Wind in the Earth 5. 5 Internal Combustion 6. 6 Exothermic Chemical Reactions 7. 7 The Cooling Star 8. 8 Plutonists Victorious over the Neptunists 9. 9 The First Field Volcanologists 10. 10 Experiments of the Plutonists 11. 11 A Solid Earth 12. 12 Decompression Melting 13. 13 Stirring the Pot: Convection 14. 14 Birth of Petrology 15. 15 The Source 16. 16 The Role of Water 17. See also the Following Articles 18. Further Reading 19. Part I Origin and Transport of Magma 20. Abstract 21. Glossary 22. 1 Introduction 23. 2 Structure and Physical Properties of the Earth's Mantle 24. 3 Mantle Melting Processes 25. 4 Mantle Melt Compositions 26. Further Reading 27. Abstract 28. Glossary 29. 1 Porous Flow Model of Melt Migration 30. 2 Melt Viscosity 31. 3 Permeability 32. 4 Mechanical Properties of the Matrix 33. 5 Melt Localization and Flow Focusing 34. 6 Future Directions 35. Further Reading 36. Abstract 37. Glossary 38. 1 Introduction 39. 2 Plate Boundaries and Magmatism 40. 3 Magma–Tectonic Interactions 41. 4 Summary 42. Further Reading 43. Abstract 44. Glossary 45. 1 Introduction 46. 2 Rock Names and Compositions 47. 3 Basaltic Magmas 48. 4 Silicic Magmas: Granites and Rhyolites 49. 5 Trace Elements 50. 6 Summary 51. Further Reading 52. Abstract 53. Glossary 54. Acknowledgments 55. Nomenclature 56. 1 Introduction 57. 2 Magmatic Systems: Time and Length Scales 58. 3 Magma Thermodynamic Properties 59. 4 Magma Transport Properties 60. 5 Conclusions 61. Supplementary Material for Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Silicate Melts and Magma 62. Further Reading 63. Abstract 64. Glossary 65. Acknowledgments 66. 1 Introduction 67. 2 Thermodynamic Potentials and Modeling the Equilibrium State 68. 3 The Minimization of a Thermodynamic Potential 69. 4 Computational Thermodynamics Tools Available to the Volcanologist/Igneous Petrologist 70. 5 Future Directions of Chemical Thermodynamic Applications in Magmatic Systems 71. Further Reading 72. Abstract 73. Glossary 74. 1 Definition and Significance of Magmatic Volatiles 75. 2 Solubility of Volatiles in Silicate Melts 76. 3 Approaches for Assessing Magmatic Volatile Contents 77. 4 Analytical Techniques for Measuring Volatile Abundances in Silicate Glasses 78. 5 Volatile Concentrations in Basaltic Magmas 79. 6 Volatile Abundances in Silicic Magmas 80. 7 Origin of Volatiles, Earth Degassing, and Volatile Recycling by Subduction 81. 8 Future Directions 82. Further Reading 83. Abstract 84. Glossary 85. 1 Introduction 86. 2 Magma Bodies: Types and Sizes 87. 3 Magma Crystallization and SFs 88. 4 Phenocrysts and SFs 89. 5 Differentiation Processes in Chambers 90. 6 Chamber Processes Revealed in the Pluton Rock Record 91. 7 Chamber Evolution and Pluton Formation 92. 8 Magmatic Systems as Mush Columns 93. Further Reading 94. Abstract 95. Glossary 96. 1 Introduction 97. 2 Magma Storage Regions 98. 3 Magma Extrusion Rates 99. 4 Bubble Formation and Evolution during Magma Ascent 100. 5 Groundmass Crystallization during Magma Ascent 101. 6 Phenocryst–Melt Reactions during Magma Ascent 102. 7 Summary 103. See also the Following Articles 104. Further Reading 105. Abstract 106. Glossary 107. 1 Introduction 108. 2 Overview 109. 3 Deformational Behavior of Materials 110. 4 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics 111. 5 Magma Flow in Dikes 112. 6 Dike Formation and Propagation 113. 7 The Fate of Dikes 114. Further Reading 115. Abstract 116. Glossary 117. 1 General Principles 118. 2 Small-Scale Processes 119. 3 Large-Scale Processes 120. 4 Process Interactions 121. Further Reading 122. Part II Eruptions 123. Abstract 124. Glossary 125. 1 Introduction 126. 2 Volcanoes—Types, Distribution, Number, and Setting 127. 3 Eruptions 128. 4 Volcanoes and Humans 129. Further Reading 130. Abstract 131. Glossary 132. 1 Introduction 133. 2 Scales and Sizes of Volcanic Eruptions 134. 3 Typical Eruptions and Recurrence Rates 135. 4 Mass and Volume of Volcanic Deposits 136. 5 Magnitudes of Volcanic Eruptions 137. 6 Intensities of Volcanic Eruptions 138. 7 Very Large Eruptions 139. 8 The Relationship between the Intensity and Magnitude of a Volcanic Eruption 140. 9 Energy of Volcanic Eruptions 141. 10 Other Measures of Eruption Size 142. Further Reading 143. Abstract 144. Glossary 145. 1 Introduction 146. 2 Ocean Ridges (Divergent Plate Volcanism) 147. 3 Volcanic Arcs (Subduction Zone Volcanism) 148. 4 Large Igneous Provinces 149. 5 Conclusions 150. Further Reading 151. Abstract 152. Glossary 153. 1 Introduction 154. 2 Polygenetic Volcanoes 155. 3 Caldera Volcanoes (Including Supervolcanoes) 156. 4 Monogenetic Volcanoes 157. 5 Volcanic Clusters, Fields, or Provinces 158. 6 Concluding Remarks 159. Further Reading 160. Abstract 161. Glossary 162. 1 Introduction 163. 2 The Anatomy of a Caldera Volcano 164. 3 Activity at Caldera Volcanoes 165. 4 Discussion 166. Further Reading 167. Part III Effusive Volcanism 168. Abstract 169. Glossary 170. 1 Introduction 171. 2 Types of Lava 172. 3 Distribution Systems 173. 4 Flow Dynamics, Cooling and Rheology 174. 5 Summary 175. Further Reading 176. Abstract 177. Glossary 178. 1 Introduction 179. 2 Definition 180. 3 Types of Lava Domes 181. 4 Lava Dome Structures and Textures 182. 5 Classic Lava Dome Eruptions 183. 6 Dynamics and Mechanics of Lava Dome Extrusion 184. 7 Hazards Associated with Lava Domes 185. 8 Summary 186. Further Reading 187. Abstract 188. Glossary 189. 1 Introduction 190. 2 Mafic Lavas 191. 3 Felsic Lavas and Associated Rocks 192. Further Reading 193. Abstract 194. Glossary 195. Acknowledgment 196. 1 Introduction 197. 2 The Basaltic Tuya Paradigm 198. 3 Intermediate to Felsic Glaciovolcanism 199. 4 Glaciovolcanism as a Paleoclimate Proxy 200. 5 Physical Constraints on Glaciovolcanic Processes 201. 6 Observations on Modern Eruptions 202. 7 Future Research 203. Further Reading 204. Abstract 205. Glossary 206. 1 Introduction 207. 2 Mid-ocean Ridges and Magma Generation 208. 3 Segmentation 209. 4 Magma Storage 210. 5 Mid-ocean Ridge Eruptions 211. 6 Volcanic Deposition 212. 7 Summary 213. Further Reading 214. Abstract 215. Glossary 216. 1 Introduction 217. 2 Definition of the Term Seamount 218. 3 Types of Seamounts 219. 4 Abundance of Seamounts 220. 5 Geochemistry 221. 6 Geochronology 222. 7 Structural Rock Types at Seamounts 223. 8 Hydrothermal Processes 224. 9 Growth and Collapse of Seamounts 225. 10 Importance of Seamounts 226. Further Reading 227. Abstract 228. Glossary 229. Acknowledgment 230. 1 Introduction 231. 2 General Characteristics of Basaltic Volcanic Fields 232. 3 Eruptive Processes and Products 233. 4 Spatial Distribution of Volcanoes 234. 5 Temporal Recurrence Rate of Activity within Basaltic Fields 235. 6 Magma Sources and Ascent 236. 7 Hazard Analysis 237. 8 Future Directions 238. Further Reading 239. Abstract 240. Glossary 241. Acknowledgments 242. 1 Introduction 243. 2 Compositional Range and Diversity of Provinces, Global Distribution, and Tectonic Settings 244. 3 Physical Parameters: Size, Age, Periodicity/Timing 245. 4 Source of Magmas and Mantle Dynamics 246. 5 Petrological and Geochemical Character of Basaltic LIP Magmas 247. 6 Oceanic Plateaus 248. 7 Volcanic Divergent Margins 249. 8 Continental Flood Basalts 250. 9 Summary 251. Further Reading 252. Mechanisms and Styles of Explosive Eruptions 253. Pyroclast Transport and Deposition 254. Abstract 255. Glossary 256. 1 Introduction 257. 2 From Source to Surface 258. 3 Fragmentation Process 259. 4 Products of Fragmentation 260. 5 Summary 261. Further Reading 262. Abstract 263. Glossary 264. 1 Introduction 265. 2 History of Observations and Research 266. 3 Processes and Physical Models 267. 4 Phreatomagmatic Deposits and Diagnostic Tools 268. Further Reading 269. Abstract 270. Glossary 271. Acknowledgments 272. 1 Overview 273. 2 Terminology 274. 3 Hawaiian and Strombolian Eruptive Styles 275. 4 Deposit Geometry 276. 5 Pyroclast Textures 277. 6 Style Transitions 278. 7 The Role of Volatiles 279. 8 Insights from Infrasonic Measurements 280. 9 Conduit Fluid Dynamics 281. 10 New Directions and Concluding Remarks 282. Further Reading 283. Abstract 284. Glossary 285. Acknowledgments 286. 1 Introduction 287. 2 Hazards 288. 3 Field Example: Karymsky Volcano 289. 4 General Phenomenological Features of Vulcanian Eruptions 290. 5 Eruption Mechanism 291. 6 Eruption Initiation 292. 7 Decompression and Fragmentation 293. 8 Vent Conditions 294. 9 Atmospheric Dynamics: Shock Waves 295. 10 Underexpanded Jet Stage 296. 11 Plume Stage 297. 12 Cyclic Activity, Transitions in Eruption Style 298. 13 Summary and Future Perspectives 299. Further Reading 300. Abstract 301. Glossary 302. Acknowledgments 303. 1 Introduction 304. 2 Classification Issues and General Characteristics 305. 3 The Plumbing System of Plinian and Subplinian Eruptions 306. 4 Magma Ascent and Fragmentation 307. 5 Atmospheric Dynamics 308. 6 Products—Density and Componentry 309. 7 Deposits 310. 8 Concluding Remarks 311. Further Reading 312. Abstract 313. Glossary 314. 1 Introduction 315. 2 Transient Explosions 316. 3 Sustained Eruptions 317. 4 Discussion 318. Further Reading 319. Abstract 320. Glossary 321. 1 Introduction 322. 2 Explosive Basaltic Eruptions 323. 3 Explosive Silicic Eruptions 324. 4 Summary 325. Further Reading 326. Abstract 327. Glossary 328. Acknowledgments 329. 1 Introduction 330. 2 Generation of Volcanic Plumes 331. 3 Structure and Behavior of Volcanic Plumes 332. 4 Atmospheric Dispersal of Plumes 333. 5 Future Research 334. Further Reading 335. Abstract 336. Glossary 337. 1 Introduction 338. 2 Tephra Sedimentation from Volcanic Plumes and Clouds 339. 3 Modeling Tephra Dispersal and Sedimentation 340. 4 Discussion and Concluding Remarks 341. Further Reading 342. Abstract 343. Glossary 344. Acknowledgments 345. 1 Introduction 346. 2 Large-Scale Features 347. 3 Intermediate Scale Features 348. 4 Small-Scale Features 349. 5 Attempts to Classify Fall Deposits 350. Further Reading 351. Appendix: Techniques for Characterization of Fall Deposits 352. Abstract 353. Glossary 354. 1 Introduction 355. 2 PDCs: Encompassing a Range of Particle Concentration 356. 3 Morphology and Internal Dynamics 357. 4 Bed-Load, Erosion, and Deposition 358. 5 Models of PDCs 359. Further Reading 360. Abstract 361. Glossary 362. 1 Introduction 363. 2 PDC Deposits from Large Volume Explosive Eruptions 364. 3 Deposits from Small Volume PDCs 365. 4 Relationship to Topography 366. 5 Co-PDC Ashfall Deposits 367. 6 Emplacement Temperatures of PDC Deposits 368. 7 Welding and Rheomorphism in Ignimbrites 369. 8 Transport and Depositional Processes Inferred from PDC Deposits 370. 9 Deposits from PDCs that Entered the Sea 371. 10 Postdepositional Changes to PDC Deposits 372. Further Reading 373. Abstract 374. Glossary 375. 1 Introduction 376. 2 Genesis of Lahars 377. 3 Lahar Behavior: A Mechanical Perspective 378. 4 Lahar Behavior: A Geological Perspective 379. 5 Lahar Deposits 380. Further Reading 381. Abstract 382. Glossary 383. 1 Introduction 384. 2 Volcano Spreading and Sagging 385. 3 Volcanic Landslides 386. 4 Volcanic Debris Avalanches 387. 5 Volcanic Instability Priming and Triggers 388. 6 General Structure of Landslides 389. 7 General Structure of Deposits 390. 8 Debris Avalanche Facies 391. 9 Different Types of Avalanche Deposit 392. 10 Secondary Effects of Volcanic Landslides 393. 11 Transport Mechanisms 394. 12 Hazards from Volcanic Debris Avalanches 395. 13 Summary 396. Further Reading 397. Annexe 1—Extended Bibliography 398. Part V Extraterrestrial Volcanism 399. Abstract 400. Glossary 401. 1 Introduction 402. 2 Mare Volcanism on the Moon 403. 3 Styles of Volcanism and Associated Landforms 404. 4 Nonmare Volcanism 405. 5 The Beginning and End of Mare Volcanism 406. See also the Following Articles 407. Further Reading 408. Abstract 409. Glossary 410. 1 Introduction: Background and the Questions 411. 2 Mariner 10 Visits Mercury and the Postmission Debate 412. 3 The MESSENGER Mission: The Flybys and the Orbital Phase 413. 4 The Array of Volcanic Features on Mercury: What We See and What We Do Not 414. 5 Magma Generation, Ascent, and Eruption 415. 6 Outstanding Problems and Future Directions 416. Further Reading 417. Abstract 418. Glossary 419. 1 Introduction 420. 2 Background 421. 3 Large Central Volcanoes 422. 4 Paterae and Tholi 423. 5 Hellas Highland Volcanoes 424. 6 Small Constructs 425. 7 Volcanic Plains 426. 8 Medusae Fossae Formation 427. 9 Compositional Constraints 428. 10 Volcanic History of Mars 429. 11 Future Studies 430. Further Reading 431. Abstract 432. Glossary 433. 1 Definition and Significance of Venus Volcanism 434. 2 Volcanic Landforms 435. 3 Factors Influencing Volcanic Eruptions and Volcanic Landforms on Venus 436. 4 Global Stratigraphy of Volcanic Landforms on Venus 437. 5 Evidence for Active Volcanism on Venus and Future Exploration 438. Further Reading 439. Abstract 440. Glossary 441. 1 Introduction 442. 2 Interior and Heat Flow 443. 3 Surface Expressions of Volcanism 444. 4 Surface Changes, Color, and Composition 445. 5 Hot Spot Temperatures and Composition of Magma 446. 6 Styles of Volcanic Activity 447. 7 Global Geology and Distribution of Volcanism 448. 8 Atmosphere and Torus 449. 9 Future Studies 450. Further Reading 451. Abstract 452. Glossary 453. 1 Introduction and Scope 454. 2 Materials and Mechanisms 455. 3 Triton 456. 4 Moons of Uranus 457. 5 Saturnian Satellites 458. 6 The Jupiter System 459. 7 Future Exploration 460. See also the Following Articles 461. Further Reading 462. Part VI Volcanic Interactions 463. Abstract 464. Glossary 465. Acknowledgment 466. 1 Introduction 467. 2 Sampling and Measuring of Volcanic Gases 468. 3 Chemical Composition of Volcanic Gases 469. 4 Degassing Processes 470. 5 Thermodynamics of Volcanic and Hydrothermal Gases 471. 6 Concluding Remarks 472. See also the Following Articles 473. Further Reading 474. Abstract 475. Glossary 476. Acknowledgments 477. 1 Introduction 478. 2 Intrusion-Related Geothermal Resources 479. 3 Heat Flow in the Earth 480. 4 Conceptual Models 481. 5 Hydrothermal Alteration 482. 6 Phase Distribution 483. 7 Geothermal Fluid Characteristics 484. 8 Geophysics, Structure, and Rock Properties 485. 9 Exploration and Appraisal of High-Temperature Systems 486. 10 Summary 487. Further Reading 488. Abstract 489. Glossary 490. Acknowledgments 491. 1 Introduction 492. 2 MOR Hydrothermal Venting 493. 3 Styles of Arc and Backarc Hydrothermal Activity 494. 4 Arc Hydrothermal Fluids 495. 5 Backarc Hydrothermal Fluids 496. 6 Comparison with MOR Venting 497. 7 Discussion 498. 8 Conclusions 499. Further Reading 500. Abstract 501. Glossary 502. Acknowledgments 503. 1 Introduction 504. 2 Characteristics of Volcano-Related Lakes 505. 3 Ancient Volcano-Related Lakes as Ore-forming Environments 506. 4 Hazards Posed by Volcano-Related Lakes 507. 5 Monitoring of Volcano-Related Lakes 508. 6 Mitigation of Volcano-Related Lake Hazards 509. 7 Concluding Remarks 510. Further Reading 511. Abstract 512. Glossary 513. 1 Introduction 514. 2 Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide Ore Deposits 515. 3 Komatiites and Their Magmatic Nickel Sulfide Deposits 516. 4 Epithermal Gold–Silver Ore Deposits 517. 5 Kimberlites, Lamproites, and Diamonds 518. 6 Conclusions 519. Further Reading 520. Abstract 521. Glossary 522. Acknowledgments 523. 1 Introduction 524. 2 Volcanic Activity and Influence on the Carbon Cycle 525. 3 Volcanic Activity and Influence on the Sulfur Cycle 526. 4 Volcanic Activity and Influence on the Halogen Cycles 527. 5 Closing Remarks 528. Further Reading 529. Part VII Volcanic Hazards 530. Abstract 531. Glossary 532. 1 Introduction 533. 2 Recurrence Rates 534. 3 Steady-state Models 535. 4 Statistical Models 536. 5 Location of Eruptive Vents 537. 6 Probabilistic Volcanic Hazard Curves and Maps 538. 7 The Event Tree Scheme for Long-term Hazard Assessment 539. 8 Future Developments 540. Further Reading 541. Abstract 542. Glossary 543. 1 Hazards 544. 2 Impacts 545. 3 Quantification 546. 4 Aviation Regulatory Environment 547. List of Acronyms 548. Further Reading 549. Abstract 550. Glossary 551. 1 Introduction 552. 2 Volcanic Emissions 553. 3 Radiative Interactions and Climate Forcing 554. 4 Climatic Impact of Volcanic Aerosols 555. 5 Ozone Impacts 556. 6 Discussion 557. Further Reading 558. Abstract 559. Glossary 560. 1 Introduction 561. 2 Definitions 562. 3 PDC Generation Mechanisms 563. 4 Velocities of PDCS 564. 5 Dynamic Pressures and Building Damage 565. 6 Detachment/Decoupling of PDCS 566. 7 Temperatures of PDCS 567. 8 PDC Hazard Modeling and Mapping 568. 9 Vesuvius Hazard Mapping Case Study 569. 10 Summary 570. Further Reading 571. Abstract 572. Glossary 573. 1 Introduction 574. 2 What Are Lava Flows? 575. 3 Evolutionary Sequences Among Lava Flows 576. 4 Field Classification of Lava Flows 577. 5 The Lava Spectrum 578. 6 Lava Dynamics and Internal Solidification 579. 7 Forecasting the Behavior of Aa Flows 580. 8 Forecasting the Behavior of Pahoehoe and Blocky Flows 581. 9 The Control of Lava Flows 582. 10 Summary 583. Further Reading 584. Abstract 585. Glossary 586. 1 Introduction 587. 2 Lahar and Jökulhlaup Characteristics 588. 3 Lahar and Jökulhlaup Hazards 589. 4 Hazard Mitigation 590. Further Reading 591. Abstract 592. Glossary 593. 1 Introduction 594. 2 Toxicity of Volcanic Gas Species 595. 3 Hazards to Population and the Environment: Case Studies 596. 4 Gas Hazard Mitigation 597. 5 Summary 598. Further Reading 599. Abstract 600. Glossary 601. 1 Introduction: Causes and Consequences of Volcanic Tsunamis 602. 2 Examples of Different Volcanic Processes Which Can Produce Tsunamis 603. 3 Monitoring of Tsunamigenic Volcanoes and the Mitigation of Hazards from Volcanic Tsunamis 604. 4 Current and Future Research Directions 605. Further Reading 606. Abstract 607. Glossary 608. 1 Introduction 609. 2 Types of Volcanic Earthquakes and Terminology 610. 3 General Features of Earthquakes at Volcanoes 611. 4 Case Histories 612. 5 Conclusions 613. See also the Following Articles 614. Further Reading 615. Abstract 616. Glossary 617. 1 Early Studies of the Human Impacts of Eruptions 618. 2 Injury Agents 619. 3 Deaths in Volcanic Eruptions 620. 4 Causes of Death and Injury 621. 5 Conclusion 622. Further Reading 623. Abstract 624. Glossary 625. 1 Introduction 626. 2 The Record of LIP Events, Extinctions and OAEs 627. 3 The Nature of LIPs 628. 4 How Might LIP Volcanism Affect the Atmosphere and Environment? 629. 5 Release of Greenhouse Gases 630. 6 Ocean Acidification 631. 7 Possible Effects of Sulfur Gas Release 632. 8 Acid Rain 633. 9 Summary 634. Further Reading 635. Abstract 636. Glossary 637. 1 Introduction 638. 2 Instruments and Observations 639. 3 Types of Lightning 640. 4 Electrification Processes 641. Further Reading 642. Part VIII Eruption Response and Mitigation 643. Abstract 644. Glossary 645. 1 Introduction—History and Organization 646. 2 Seismic Instruments and Networks 647. 3 Terminology and Types of Volcanic Earthquakes 648. 4 Forecasting Eruptions 649. 5 Characterizing Eruptions in Progress 650. 6 Case Histories 651. 7 Conclusions 652. See also the Following Articles 653. Further Reading 654. Abstract 655. Glossary 656. 1 Principles of Ground Deformation Monitoring 657. 2 Techniques Used in the Field 658. 3 Modeling Deformation 659. 4 Case Histories of Deformation 660. 5 Principles of Gravity Monitoring 661. 6 Techniques Used in the Field 662. 7 Case Histories of Gravity Changes 663. 8 Principles of Magnetic Monitoring 664. 9 Techniques Used in the Field 665. 10 Case Histories of Magnetic Observations 666. 11 Concluding Remarks 667. See also the Following Articles 668. Further Reading 669. Abstract 670. Glossary 671. 1 Introduction 672. 2 Gas Measurements and Monitoring 673. 3 Thermal Measurements and Monitoring 674. 4 Website Dissemination and Alert Systems 675. 5 Future Directions 676. Further Reading 677. Abstract 678. 1 Introduction 679. 2 Instruments and Networks 680. 3 Monitoring Before Eruptions 681. 4 Monitoring During Eruptions 682. 5 Monitoring After Eruptions 683. 6 Case History: Merapi 2010 684. 7 Discussion 685. 8 Volcano Monitoring in the Future 686. See also the Following Articles 687. Further Reading 688. Abstract 689. Glossary 690. 1 Introduction 691. 2 Volcano Warning Systems 692. 3 Spatial and Temporal Classification of Notifications 693. 4 An Effective Warning System 694. 5 The Form of Warnings 695. 6 Summary 696. Further Reading 697. Abstract 698. Glossary 699. 1 Introduction 700. 2 Pre-event Preparedness 701. 3 Crisis Response 702. 4 Recovery 703. 5 Summary 704. Further Reading 705. Abstract 706. Glossary 707. 1 Introduction 708. 2 Part I—Volcanic Activity: Social Outcomes, Individual Behavior, and Communication Processes 709. 3 Part II – Social Factors that Modulate Volcanic Risk 710. 4 Part III—Case Studies 711. Further Reading 712. Abstract 713. Glossary 714. 1 Introduction 715. 2 Volcanic Risk: Landmark Eruptions 716. 3 Volcanic Risk: Assets and Vulnerabilities 717. 4 Risk Metrics, Criteria, and Tolerability 718. 5 Characterizing Volcanic Risk 719. 6 Cost–Benefit Analysis in VRM 720. 7 Relative Risks and Risk Management for Nonlethal Hazards 721. 8 Expert Elicitation for Risk Assessment 722. 9 Future Developments 723. See also the Following Articles 724. Further Reading 725. Part IX Economic Benefits and Cultural Aspects of Volcanism 726. Abstract 727. Glossary 728. 1 Introduction 729. 2 Use of Hydrothermal Fluids 730. 3 Hydrothermal Systems and their Roots 731. 4 Renewability of Geothermal Systems 732. 5 Drilling for Hydrothermal Fluids 733. 6 Strategy in Geothermal Development and Use 734. 7 Monitoring Studies 735. 8 Environmental Aspects 736. Further Reading 737. Abstract 738. Glossary 739. Acknowledgments 740. 1 Introduction 741. 2 Formation and Evolution 742. 3 Distribution 743. 4 Properties 744. 5 Utilization and Environmental Implications 745. 6 Concluding Remarks 746. Further Reading 747. Abstract 748. Glossary 749. Acknowledgments 750. 1 Introduction 751. 2 Conceptual Models of Succession: Biotic Assembly and Ecosystem Change Over Time 752. 3 Volcanic Processes and Initial Implications for Soil and Ecosystem Development 753. 4 Geography of Volcanism: Implications for Volcano Ecology 754. 5 Distribution of Volcano Ecology Studies across Biomes of the World 755. 6 Plant Successional Processes Following Volcanism 756. 7 Animal Responses to Initial Eruption and Subsequent Assembly Processes 757. 8 Ecosystem Processes and Biological Interactions 758. 9 Summary 759. Further Reading 760. Abstract 761. Glossary 762. 1 Introduction 763. 2 Types of Materials 764. 3 Prehistoric Uses 765. 4 Modern Uses 766. 5 Additives 767. 6 Aggregates 768. 7 Construction 769. 8 Decorative Uses 770. 9 Conclusions 771. See also the Following Articles 772. Further Reading 773. Abstract 774. Glossary 775. 1 What is Volcano Tourism? 776. 2 Volcanoes in History, Culture, and Religion 777. 3 Volcanic National Parks, Geoparks, and World Heritage Sites 778. 4 Volcanic Eruptions—Unique Tourist Experiences 779. 5 Activities in Volcanic Environments 780. 6 Summary 781. Further Reading 782. Abstract 783. Glossary 784. 1 Introduction 785. 2 Volcanic Activity and Ancient Human Ancestors 786. 3 Volcanic Eruptions and Complex Societies 787. 4 Recent Large-Scale Volcanic Impacts 788. 5 Volcanoes and People in the Future 789. Further Reading 790. Abstract 791. Glossary 792. 1 Introduction 793. 2 The Beginnings of Landscape Painting 794. 3 Vesuvius 1631 Eruption 795. 4 Empedocles Leaps into Etna 796. 5 The Neapolitan School 797. 6 Neoclassicism 798. 7 Turner's Fire 799. 8 Hokusai and the Spell of Fuji 800. 9 American Exploration of Unknown Volcanoes 801. 10 Hawaiian Eruptions 802. 11 Dr Atl—Volcanologist and Artist 803. 12 The Modern Volcano Landscape 804. 13 Artistic Illustration 805. See also the Following Articles 806. Further Reading 807. Abstract 808. Glossary 809. 1 Introduction 810. 2 Pretwentieth-Century Novels 811. 3 Twentieth-Century Novels 812. 4 Juvenile Fiction and Comics 813. 5 Volcano Films 814. See also the Following Articles 815. Further Reading 816. 1 Mathematical Prefixes of Units 817. 2 Measurement Units and Conversion Factors 818. Appendix 2. Catalog of Earth's Documented Holocene Eruptions 819. Index 820. IBC 821. Sync with Jellybooks