Youmans and Winn Neurological Surgery

1. Section I & II. Introduction and General Neurosurgery: Overview and Controversies - p. cix 2. Introduction - p. 1 3. Part 1. History - p. 8 4. 1. Historical Overview of Neurosurgery - p. 9 5. Neurosurgery in the Prehistoric Period - p. 9 6. Ancient Egyptian Neurosurgery - p. 9 7. Classical Period: Greek and Byzantine Neurosurgery - p. 9 8. Islamic/Arabic Medicine: Prescholastic Period - p. 9.000001E6 9. Middle ages: the age of Medieval Medical Scholasticism - p. 9.00000001E8 10. Origins of Neurosurgical Practice in the Renaissance - p. 9.000000000001E12 11. Surgeons of the Insurgency: Seventeenth Century - p. 9.0E18 12. Eighteenth Century: an Enlightened Period for Neurosurgery - p. 9.0E24 13. Nineteenth Century: Incunabula Period of Modern Neurosurgery - p. 9.0E30 14. Further Advances in Neurosurgery: Twentieth Century - p. 9.0E38 15. Concluding Thoughts - p. 9.0E38 16. Part 2. Surgical Anatomy - p. 9.e44 17. 2. Surgical Anatomy of the Brain - p. 10 18. Introduction - p. 10 19. Cerebrum - p. 12 20. Posterior Fossa - p. 34 21. 3. Surgical Anatomy of the Skull Base - p. 49 22. 4. Surgical Anatomy of the Spine - p. 79 23. Part 3. Approach to the Patient - p. 99.e2 24. 5. Precision Medicine in Neurosurgery - p. 100 25. 6. Improving Patient Safety - p. 106 26. 7. Neuroanesthesia: Preoperative Evaluation - p. 111 27. 8. Preoperative Assessment by Navigated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation - p. 124 28. 9. Classification Systems in Neurosurgery - p. 131 29. Part 4. Overview of Radiology - p. 136.e1 30. 10. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain - p. 137 31. 11. Radiology of the Spine - p. 168 32. 12. Physiologic Evaluation of the Brain With Magnetic Resonance Imaging - p. 197 33. 13. Molecular Imaging of the Brain with Positron Emission Tomography - p. 198 34. 14. Diffusion Tensor Imaging - p. 199 35. Part 5. Related Systems - p. 199.e21 36. 15. Neuro-ophthalmology - p. 200 37. 16. Neurotology - p. 201 38. 17. Neurourology - p. 202 39. 18. Coagulation for the Neurosurgeon - p. 203 40. 19. The Microbiome and the Central Nervous System - p. 213 41. 20. Peripheral Venous Disease in the Neurosurgery Patient - p. 217 42. Part 1. The Operating Room - p. 221.e2 43. 21. Surgical Planning - p. 222 44. 22. Avoidance of Complications in Neurosurgery - p. 228 45. Complications Related to Patient Positioning - p. 228 46. Catastrophic Medical Complications - p. 22801 47. Risk Factors Related to Anatomy or Technique in Specific Surgical Procedures - p. 2.280001E6 48. Conclusion - p. 2.28E19 49. 23. Incisions and Closures - p. 229 50. 24. Positioning for Cranial Surgery - p. 230 51. 25. Positioning for Spine Surgery - p. 231 52. 26. Positioning for Peripheral Nerve Surgery - p. 232 53. 27. Surgical Simulation - p. 233 54. 28. Robotics in Cranial Neurosurgery - p. 234 55. 29. Spinal Robotic Surgery - p. 235 56. 30. Augmented Reality as an Aid in Neurosurgery - p. 236 57. 31. Visualization and Optics in Neurosurgery - p. 247 58. 32. Microscope Integration and Heads-Up Display in Brain Surgery - p. 258 59. 33. Brain Retraction - p. 259 60. 34. Advantages and Limitations of Cranial Endoscopy - p. 266 61. Part 2. Intensive Care - p. 274.e4 62. 35. Principles of Neurocritical Care - p. 275 63. 36. The Neurosurgical Intensive Care Unit and the Unique Role of the Neurosurgeon - p. 283 64. 37. Intracranial Pressure Monitoring - p. 288 65. Part 3. Neurosurgical Care in the Geriatric Patient - p. 295.e3 66. 38. The Geriatric Patient: Age-Related Pathophysiologic Changes and Anesthesia Considerations - p. 296 67. 39. Brain Tumor Management in the Geriatric Patient - p. 306 68. 40. Traumatic Brain Injury in the Geriatric Patient - p. 314 69. Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus - p. 320.e3 70. 41. Genetics of Idiopathic Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus - p. 321 71. 42. Production and Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid - p. 322 72. 43. Clinical Evaluation of Hydrocephalus in Adults - p. 323 73. 44. Shunting - p. 333 74. 45. The Role of Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy: A Critical Review - p. 345 75. Chronic Subdural Hematomas - p. 352.e2 76. 46. Pathophysiology of Chronic Subdural Hematomas - p. 353 77. 47. Medical and Surgical Management of Chronic Subdural Hematomas - p. 360 78. Part 4. Neurosurgical Care in the Pregnant Patient - p. 367.e2 79. 48. Systemic and Central Nervous System Changes During Pregnancy - p. 368 80. 49. Neuroanesthesia During Pregnancy - p. 377 81. 50. Vascular Lesions During Pregnancy - p. 386 82. 51. Brain Tumors During Pregnancy - p. 391 83. Part 5. Infections in Neurosurgery - p. 399.e5 84. 52. Basic Science of Central Nervous System Infections - p. 400 85. 53. Postoperative Infections of the Head and Brain - p. 401 86. 54. Postoperative Infections of the Spine - p. 413 87. 55. The Use and Misuse of Antibiotics in Neurosurgery - p. 422 88. 56. Brain Abscess - p. 430 89. 57. Meningitis and Encephalitis - p. 432 90. 58. Neurological Manifestations of HIV and AIDS - p. 433 91. 59. Parasitic Infections - p. 434 92. 60. Surgical Risk of Blood-Borne Transmissible Disease - p. 436 93. Section III. Basic and Clinical Sciences: Overview and Controversies - p. 443.e3 94. Introduction - p. 444 95. 61. Molecular Biological Approaches for Understanding the Nervous System: A Primer for Neurosurgeons - p. 446 96. 62. Optogenetics and Clarity - p. 465 97. 63. Neuroembryology - p. 466 98. 64. Stem Cell Biology in the Central Nervous System - p. 467 99. 65. Neurons and Neuroglia - p. 468 100. 66. Cellular Mechanisms of Brain Energy Metabolism - p. 469 101. 67. Cellular and Molecular Responses in the Peripheral and Central Nervous System Following Axonal Injury - p. 470 102. 68. The Blood-Brain Barrier - p. 471 103. 69. Physiology of the Cerebrospinal Fluid and Intracranial Pressure - p. 472 104. 70. Cerebral Edema - p. 473 105. 71. Extracellular Fluid Movement and Clearance in the Brain: The Glymphatic Pathway - p. 474 106. 72. Altered Consciousness - p. 475 107. 73. Neuropsychological Testing - p. 476 108. 74. Biosensors in Neurosurgery: Wearable and Implantable Devices for Monitoring - p. 477 109. 75. Artificial Intelligence and Big Data in Neurosurgery - p. 478 110. 76. Neurosurgical Epidemiology, Research, and Biostatistics - p. 479 111. Section IV. Epilepsy: Overview and Controversies - p. 479.e13 112. Introduction - p. 480 113. Part 1. Basic Science of Epilepsy - p. 485.e4 114. 77. Electrophysiologic Properties of the Mammalian Central Nervous System - p. 486 115. 78. Animal Models of Epilepsy - p. 487 116. 79. Malformations of Cortical Development - p. 488 117. Part 2. Approach to the Epileptic Patient - p. 488.e11 118. 80. Diagnosis and Classification of Seizures and Epilepsy - p. 489 119. 81. Antiseizure Medications: Principles of Clinical Use - p. 496 120. 82. Electroencephalography in Outpatient, Epilepsy Monitoring Unit, and Intensive Care Unit Settings - p. 502 121. Part 3. Preoperative Evaluation for Epilepsy - p. 502.e25 122. 83. Evaluation of Patients for Epilepsy Surgery - p. 503 123. 84. Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Epilepsy Surgery - p. 507 124. 85. Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography in Epilepsy Surgery Evaluation - p. 520 125. 86. Magnetoencephalography/Magnetic Source Imaging - p. 523 126. 87. Wada Testing - p. 537 127. 88. Preoperative Functional Localization - p. 543 128. Part 4. Intracranial Recordings - p. 548.e3 129. 89. Intracranial Monitoring with Subdural Grids and Strips - p. 549 130. 90. Intracranial Monitoring: Stereo-electroencephalography Recording - p. 562 131. 91. Intraoperative Electrocorticography and Strategy in Tailored Lesionectomies - p. 571 132. 92. Intraoperative Mapping and Monitoring for Cortical Resection - p. 579 133. 93. Investigation of Human Cognition in Epilepsy Surgery Patients - p. 585 134. Part 5. Specific Operative Approaches - p. 595.e4 135. 94A. Anteromedial Temporal Lobectomy - p. 596 136. 94B. Selective Amygdalohippocampectomy - p. 602 137. 95. Resections for Extratemporal Epilepsy - p. 605 138. 96. Palliative Procedures for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy - p. 615 139. 97. Radiosurgical Treatment for Epilepsy - p. 616 140. 98. Laser Interstitial Thermal Therapy in Epilepsy - p. 629 141. 99. Hemispheric Disconnection Procedures - p. 636 142. 100. Electrical Stimulation for Epilepsy (VNS, DBS, and RNS) - p. 646 143. 101. Epilepsy Surgery: Outcomes and Complications - p. 667 144. Section V. Functional Neurosurgery: Overview and Controversies - p. 667.e25 145. Introduction - p. 668 146. Part 1. Basic Science of Movement Disorders - p. 670 147. 102. Anatomy and Synaptic Connectivity of the Basal Ganglia - p. 671 148. 103. Rationale for Surgical Interventions in Movement Disorders - p. 672 149. 104. Neuropathology of Movement Disorders - p. 681 150. Functional Anatomy of Basal Ganglia - p. 681.e1 151. α-Synucleinopathies - p. 681.e5 152. Hypokinetic-Rigid Movement Disorders - p. 681.e5 153. Lewy Body–Associated Disorders - p. 681.e5 154. Tauopathies - p. 681.e18 155. Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders - p. 681.e22 156. Conclusion - p. 681.e29 157. Part 2. Neurology of Movement Disorders - p. 681.e51 158. 105. Clinical Overview of Movement Disorders - p. 682 159. 106. Patient Selection Criteria for Deep Brain Stimulation in Movement Disorders - p. 695 160. 107. Functional Imaging in Movement Disorders - p. 705 161. 108. Neuroimaging in Stereotactic Functional Neurosurgery - p. 710 162. Part 3. Surgery for Movement Disorders - p. 712.e2 163. 109. Surgical Management of Tremor - p. 713 164. 110. Ablative Procedures for Parkinson Disease - p. 721 165. 111. Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson Disease - p. 731 166. 112. Deep Brain Stimulation for Dystonia - p. 739 167. 113. Deep Brain Stimulation: Mechanisms of Action - p. 748 168. 114. Complication Avoidance in Deep Brain Stimulation Surgery - p. 761 169. 115. Neurophysiologic Monitoring for Movement Disorder Surgery - p. 769 170. 116. Emerging and Experimental Neurosurgical Treatments for Parkinson’s Disease - p. 770 171. 117. Transcranial Magnetic Resonance–Guided Focused Ultrasound Thalamotomy for Tremor - p. 771 172. 118. Selective Peripheral Denervation for Cervical Dystonia - p. 780 173. 119. Thalamotomy for Focal Hand Dystonia - p. 786 174. Part 4. Surgery for Psychiatric Disorders - p. 791.e2 175. 120. History and Ethical Considerations in Functional Neurosurgery - p. 792 176. 121. Surgery for Tourette Syndrome - p. 798 177. 122. Surgery for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - p. 803 178. 123. Surgery for Major Depressive Disorder - p. 814 179. 124. Surgery for Anorexia Nervosa - p. 824 180. 125. Surgery and Neuroscience of Addiction - p. 832 181. Part 5. Surgical Interventions for Spasticity - p. 839.e3 182. 126. Lesioning Surgery for Spasticity - p. 840 183. 127. Management of Spasticity by Central Nervous System Infusion Techniques - p. 853 184. Part 6. Surgery for Vertigo, Cortical Stimulation, Obesity, Alzheimer Disease, and Neuroprosthetics - p. 863.e3 185. 128. Treatment of Intractable Vertigo - p. 864 186. 129. Motor Cortex Stimulation for Pain and Movement Disorders - p. 865 187. 130. Deep Brain Stimulation for Obesity - p. 869 188. 131. Deep Brain Stimulation for Alzheimer Disease - p. 874 189. 132. Neuroprosthetics - p. 880 190. Section VI. Oncology: Overview and Controversies - p. 886.e2 191. Introduction - p. 887 192. Part 1. Basic Science of Neurooncology - p. 898.e7 193. 133. Brain Tumors: An Overview of Current Histopathologic and Genetic Classifications - p. 899 194. 134. Brain Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy - p. 913 195. 135. Brain Tumor Stem Cells - p. 923 196. 136. Molecular Genetics and the Development of Targets for Glioma Therapy - p. 931 197. 137. The Genetic Origins of Brain Cancers - p. 944 198. 138. Malignant Glioma Microenvironment - p. 952 199. 139. Basic Science of Brain Metastases - p. 953 200. 140. Angiogenesis and Brain Tumors: Scientific Principles, Current Therapy, and Future Directions - p. 970 201. Historical Perspective - p. 970 202. Angiotherapy: A Novel Approach To Glioma Therapy - p. 97001 203. Mechanisms of Tumor Angiogenesis - p. 970001 204. Reduction of Vasogenic Edema, Radioprotection, and Radiosensitization - p. 9.700000001E9 205. Clinical Experience With the Use of Bevacizumab - p. 9.700000000001E12 206. Bevacizumab Resistance and Glioma Recurrence - p. 9.7E16 207. The Role of Anti-Vegf Therapy For Other CNS Tumors - p. 9.7E19 208. Brain Metastases - p. 9.7E20 209. Pediatric Brain Tumors - p. 9.7E20 210. Current Trends and Future Directions - p. 9.7E20 211. Conclusion - p. 9.7E23 212. Online Resources of Angiogenesis in Brain Tumors - p. 9.7E23 213. 141. Delivery of Therapy to Brain Tumors: Problems and Potentials - p. 971 214. 142. Epidemiology of Brain Tumors - p. 979 215. Part 2. Approach to the Neuro-Oncology Patient - p. 985.e3 216. 143. Clinical Features: Neurology of Brain Tumor and Paraneoplastic Disorders - p. 986 217. 144. Radiologic Features of Central Nervous System Tumors - p. 993 218. 145. Endovascular Techniques for Tumor Embolization - p. 1012 219. 146. Genetic Syndromes of Brain Tumors - p. 1020 220. 147. Principles of Chemotherapy - p. 1028 221. 148. Brain Tumor Outcome Studies: Design and Interpretation - p. 1034 222. 149. Neurocognition in Brain Tumor Patients - p. 1035 223. 150. Frame and Frameless Stereotactic Brain Biopsy - p. 1041 224. Part 3. Surgical Considerations in Neuro-Oncology - p. 1048.e2 225. 151. Basic Principles of Cranial Surgery for Brain Tumors - p. 1049 226. 152. Basic Principles of Skull Base Surgery - p. 1050 227. 153. Risks of Intrinsic Brain Tumor Surgery and Avoidance of Complications - p. 1061 228. 154. Surgical Navigation for Brain Tumors - p. 1070 229. 155. Endoscopic Approaches to Brain Tumors - p. 1076 230. 156. Awake Craniotomy and Intraoperative Mapping - p. 1082 231. 157A. Intraoperative Magnetic Resonance Imaging - p. 1088 232. 157B. Fluorescence-guided Brain Tumor Surgery - p. 1090 233. Part 4. Intrinsic and Ventricular Tumors - p. 1090.e12 234. 158. Low-Grade Gliomas: Diffuse Astrocytoma and Oligodendroglioma - p. 1091 235. 159. Malignant Gliomas: Anaplastic Astrocytoma, Glioblastoma, Gliosarcoma, and Anaplastic Oligodendroglioma - p. 1100 236. 160. Radiologic and Clinical Criteria of Treatment Response - p. 1118 237. 161. Unusual Gliomas - p. 1119 238. 162. Local Therapies for Gliomas - p. 1131 239. 163. Central Nervous System Embryonal Tumors - p. 1139 240. 164. Pineal Tumors - p. 1147 241. 165. Medulloblastomas in Adults - p. 1162 242. 166. Intracranial Ependymomas in Adults - p. 1167 243. 167. Hemangioblastomas - p. 1171 244. 168. Primary Central Nervous System Lymphomas - p. 1181 245. 169. Metastatic Brain Tumors - p. 1187 246. 170. Ventricular Tumors - p. 1203 247. 171. Colloid Cysts of the Third Ventricle - p. 1234 248. Part 5. Extrinsic Tumors - p. 1240.e2 249. 172. Meningiomas - p. 1241 250. 173. Mesenchymal Nonmeningothelial Tumors - p. 1270 251. 174. Vestibular Schwannomas - p. 1278 252. 175. Pituitary Tumors: Functioning and Nonfunctioning - p. 1292 253. 176. Craniopharyngiomas in Adults - p. 1321 254. 177. Epidermoid, Dermoid, and Neurenteric Cysts - p. 1325 255. 178. Endoscopic Endonasal Surgery for Skull Base Tumors - p. 1333 256. Part 6. Skull and Skull Base Tumors - p. 1340.e1 257. 179. Overview of Skull Base Tumors - p. 1341 258. 180. Chordomas and Chondrosarcomas - p. 1365 259. 181. Head and Neck Paragangliomas - p. 1375 260. Nomenclature - p. 1375 261. General Overview - p. 1375 262. Historical Background - p. 1377 263. Tumor Characteristics - p. 1381 264. Typical Aspects According to Origin, Clinical Signs, and Symptoms - p. 1384 265. Diagnosis - p. 1385 266. Treatment - p. 1387 267. Conclusion - p. 1396 268. 182. Neoplasms of the Paranasal Sinuses - p. 1397 269. 183. Esthesioneuroblastoma - p. 1412 270. 184. Trigeminal Schwannomas - p. 1421 271. 185. Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibromas - p. 1431 272. 186. Tumors of the Orbit - p. 1432 273. 187. Skull Tumors - p. 1444 274. 188. Scalp Tumors - p. 1445 275. Part 7. Nonneoplastic Disorders Mimicking Brain Tumors - p. 1452.e2 276. 189. Pseudotumor Cerebri - p. 1453 277. 190. Sarcoidosis, Tuberculosis, and Demyelinating Disease - p. 1465 278. Section VII. Pain: Overview and Controversies - p. 1471.e1 279. Introduction - p. 1472 280. Part 1. Basic Science - p. 1477.e3 281. 191. Anatomy and Physiology of Pain - p. 1478 282. 192. Molecular Basis of Nociception - p. 1479 283. Part 2. Nonsurgical Therapy - p. 1479.e8 284. 193. Approach to the Patient With Chronic Pain - p. 1480 285. 194. Pharmacologic Treatment of Pain - p. 1484 286. 195. Management of Pain by Percutaneous Anesthetic Injections and Neurolysis - p. 1494 287. Part 3. Treatment of Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1504.e3 288. 196. Evidence-Based Approach to the Treatment of Facial Pain - p. 1505 289. 197. Trigeminal Neuralgia: Diagnosis and Nonoperative Management - p. 1509 290. 198. Percutaneous Procedures for Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1519 291. 199. Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1526 292. 200. Microvascular Decompression for Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1535 293. Part 4. Surgical Procedures for Nontrigeminal Pain - p. 1541.e2 294. 201. Neurosurgical Management of Intractable Pain - p. 1542 295. Neuromodulation - p. 1542.e12 296. 202. Evidence-based Neurostimulation for Pain - p. 1543 297. 203. Peripheral Nerve Stimulation for Neuropathic Pain - p. 1544 298. 204. Spinal Cord Stimulation - p. 1548 299. Destructive Procedures - p. 1555.e3 300. 205. Evidence Base for Destructive Procedures - p. 1556 301. Methods - p. 1556 302. Results - p. 1557 303. Discussion - p. 1560 304. Conclusion - p. 1561 305. 206. Dorsal Rhizotomy and Dorsal Root Ganglionectomy - p. 1563 306. 207. Diagnosis and Management of Painful Neuromas - p. 1566 307. 208. Dorsal Root Entry Zone Lesions for Pain - p. 1571 308. 209. Percutaneous Cordotomy and Trigeminal Tractotomy for Pain - p. 1579 309. Section VIII. Pediatrics: Overview and Controversies - p. 1583.e1 310. Introduction - p. 1584 311. Part 1. Approach to the Pediatric Patient - p. 1589.e2 312. 210. Neuroanesthesia in Children - p. 1590 313. 211. Neurocritical Care in Children - p. 1596 314. Part 2. Cranial Development Abnormalities - p. 1609.e10 315. 212. Neuroembryology and Molecular Genetics of the Brain - p. 1610 316. 213. Cranial Dysraphisms: Encephaloceles, Meningoceles, and Cranial Dermal Sinus Tracts - p. 1621 317. 214. Dandy-Walker Syndrome - p. 1636 318. 215. Arachnoid Cysts in Childhood - p. 1642 319. 216. Chiari Malformations - p. 1647 320. 217. Craniopagus Twins - p. 1659 321. Part 3. Craniosynostosis - p. 1667.e1 322. 218. Molecular Genetics and Principles of Craniosynostosis - p. 1668 323. 219. Nonsyndromic Craniosynostosis: Introduction and Single-Suture Synostosis - p. 1675 324. 220. Syndromic Craniosynostosis - p. 1690 325. 221. Endoscopic Treatment of Craniosynostosis - p. 1691 326. 222. Nonsynostotic Plagiocephaly - p. 1692 327. Part 4. Hydrocephalus in Children - p. 1695.e2 328. 223. Hydrocephalus in Children: Etiology and Overall Management - p. 1696 329. 224. Infantile Post-hemorrhagic Hydrocephalus - p. 1703 330. 225. Cerebrospinal Fluid Disorders and Transitional Neurosurgery - p. 1711 331. 226. Experimental Hydrocephalus - p. 1712 332. 227. Ventricular Shunting Procedures - p. 1714 333. 228. Neuroendoscopy - p. 1729 334. 229. Cerebrospinal Fluid Devices - p. 1737 335. 230. Management and Prevention of Shunt Infections - p. 1743 336. Part 5. Pediatric Cranial and Intracranial Tumors - p. 1748.e2 337. 231. Genetics of Pediatric Brain Tumors - p. 1749 338. 232. General Approaches and Considerations for Pediatric Brain Tumors - p. 1760 339. 233. Optic Pathway Hypothalamic Gliomas - p. 1761 340. 234. Thalamic Tumors - p. 1770 341. 235. Choroid Plexus Tumors - p. 1777 342. 236. Pediatric Craniopharyngiomas - p. 1786 343. 237. Pediatric Supratentorial Hemispheric Tumors - p. 1795 344. 238. Ependymomas - p. 1803 345. 239. Medulloblastomas in Children - p. 1804 346. 240. Cerebellar Astrocytomas - p. 1818 347. 241. Brainstem Gliomas - p. 1824 348. 242. Intracranial Germ Cell Tumors - p. 1832 349. 243. Neurocutaneous Tumor Syndromes - p. 1840 350. 244. Pediatric Intraventricular and Periventricular Tumors - p. 1848 351. 245. Skull Lesions in Children - p. 1856 352. Part 6. Vascular Disease in Children - p. 1860.e2 353. 246. Moyamoya Disease in Children - p. 1861 354. 247. Vein of Galen Aneurysmal Malformation - p. 1869 355. 248. Pediatric Cerebral Aneurysms - p. 1883 356. 249. Pediatric Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 1885 357. Part 7. Head and Brain Trauma in Children - p. 1885.e9 358. 250. Management of Head Injury: Special Considerations in Children - p. 1886 359. 251. Inflicted Trauma (Child Abuse) - p. 1895 360. 252. Growing Skull Fractures - p. 1902 361. 253. Neonatal Brain Injury - p. 1907 362. 254. Birth Brachial Plexus Injury - p. 1912 363. Part 8. Spine Disorders in Children - p. 1912.e5 364. 255. Myelomeningocele and Myelocystocele - p. 1913 365. 256. Fetal Surgery for Myelomeningocele - p. 1926 366. 257. Lipomyelomeningocele - p. 1935 367. 258. Split Spinal Cord - p. 1943 368. 259. Tethered Spinal Cord: Fatty Filum Terminale, Meningocele Manqué, and Dermal Sinus Tracts - p. 1951 369. 260. Developmental Anomalies of the Craniovertebral Junction and Surgical Management - p. 1957 370. 261. Achondroplasia and Other Dwarfisms - p. 1973 371. 262. Surgical Management of the Pediatric Subaxial Cervical Spine - p. 1986 372. 263. Tumors of the Spine, Spinal Canal, and Spinal Cord in Children - p. 1995 373. 264. Introduction to Spinal Deformities in Children - p. 2011 374. 265. Thoracolumbar Spinal Disorders in Pediatric Patients - p. 2026 375. 266. Pediatric Vertebral Column and Spinal Cord Injuries - p. 2038 376. Part 9. Functional Disorders in Children - p. 2038.e23 377. 267. Pediatric Epilepsy Surgery - p. 2039 378. 268. Clinical Features and Management of Cerebral Palsy - p. 2047 379. 269. Intrathecal Baclofen Therapy for Cerebral Palsy - p. 2055 380. 270. Selective Dorsal Rhizotomy for Spastic Cerebral Palsy - p. 2060 381. Section IX. Peripheral Nerve Disorders: Overview and Controversies - p. 2063.e1 382. Introduction - p. 2065 383. Part 1. Basic Science of Peripheral Nerve Disorders - p. 2070 384. 271. Pathophysiology of Surgical Nerve Disorders - p. 2071 385. Part 2. Approach to the Patient With Peripheral Nerve Disorders - p. 2083.e4 386. 272. Peripheral Nerve Examination, Evaluation, and Biopsy - p. 2084 387. 273. Peripheral Neuropathies - p. 2092 388. 274. Monitoring of Neural Function: Electromyography, Nerve Conduction, and Evoked Potentials - p. 2105 389. 275. Imaging for Peripheral Nerve Disorders - p. 2114 390. Part 3. Management of Peripheral Nerve Entrapment - p. 2127.e2 391. 276. Distal Entrapment Syndromes: Carpal Tunnel, Cubital Tunnel, Peroneal, and Tarsal Tunnel - p. 2128 392. 277. Brachial Plexus Nerve Entrapments and Thoracic Outlet Syndromes - p. 2142 393. 278. Piriformis Syndrome, Obturator Internus Syndrome, Pudendal Nerve Entrapment, and Other Pelvic Entrapments - p. 2151 394. Part 4. Management and Repair of Peripheral Nerve Injuries - p. 2160.e2 395. 279. Techniques in Nerve Reconstruction and Repair - p. 2161 396. 280. Nerve Transfers - p. 2169 397. 281. Management of Acute Peripheral Nerve Injuries - p. 2174 398. 282. Early Management of Brachial Plexus Injuries - p. 2184 399. 283. Secondary Procedures for Brachial Plexus Injuries - p. 2185 400. 284. Nerve Injuries of the Lower Extremity - p. 2194 401. Part 5. Management of Peripheral Nerve Tumors - p. 2207.e3 402. 285. Benign and Malignant Tumors of the Peripheral Nerve - p. 2208 403. Part 6. Management of Pain and Complications in Peripheral Nerve Surgery - p. 2222.e4 404. 286. Avoiding Iatrogenic Injury Affecting Nerves and Treatment of Consequent Symptoms - p. 2223 405. Part 7. Peripheral Nerve Treatments in Neurologic Therapeutics - p. 2229.e2 406. 287. Neuroelectronic Systems - p. 2230 407. 288. Peripheral Nerve Surgery for Central Nervous System Disorders - p. 2235 408. 289. Peripheral Nerve Treatments for Central and Autonomic Disorders - p. 2236 409. Section X. Radiation: Overview and Controversies - p. 2241.e1 410. Introduction - p. 2242 411. Part 1. Science of Radiation Techniques - p. 2248.e4 412. 290. General and Historical Considerations of Radiotherapy and Radiosurgery - p. 2249 413. 291. Radiobiology of Radiotherapy and Radiosurgery - p. 2257 414. 292. Radiation Therapy Techniques - p. 2269 415. 293. Radiosurgery Technique - p. 2274 416. 294. Radiology of Radiation Techniques - p. 2283 417. 295. Combining Ionizing Radiation and Systemic Therapies for Treatment of Brain Metastases - p. 2287 418. Part 2. Fractionated Radiation Therapy - p. 2292.e2 419. 296. Fractionated Radiotherapy for Brain Tumors - p. 2293 420. Radiobiology - p. 2293 421. Radiation Delivery: Technical Issues - p. 2294 422. Clinical Applications - p. 2297 423. Complications - p. 2312 424. 297. Fractionated Radiotherapy for Spine Tumors - p. 2315 425. Part 3. Intracranial Stereotactic Radiosurgery - p. 2324.e3 426. 298. Radiosurgery for Malignant Intracranial Tumors - p. 2325 427. 299. Radiosurgery for Benign Intracranial Tumors - p. 2335 428. 300. Radiosurgery for Intracranial Vascular Malformations - p. 2348 429. 301. Radiosurgery for Functional Disorders - p. 2361 430. Part 4. Extracranial Stereotactic Radiosurgery - p. 2365.e2 431. 302. Radiosurgery for Benign Spine Tumors and Spinal Vascular Malformations - p. 2366 432. 303. Radiosurgery for Malignant Axial Spine Tumors - p. 2372 433. Section XI. Spine: Overview and Controversies - p. 2383.e4 434. Introduction - p. 2384 435. Part 1. Basic Science of the Spine - p. 2389.e2 436. 304. Spinal Anatomy - p. 2390 437. 305. Spinal Imaging - p. 2401 438. 306. Spinal Biomechanics and Basics of Spinal Instrumentation - p. 2402 439. 307. Disk Degeneration and Regeneration - p. 2408 440. 308. Pathophysiology and Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury - p. 2415 441. 309. Electrophysiologic Studies and Monitoring - p. 2427 442. 310. Bone Metabolism and Osteoporosis - p. 2437 443. Part 2. Approach to the Patient With a Spinal Disorder - p. 2443.e3 444. 311. Differential Diagnosis of Spinal Disease - p. 2444 445. 312. Nonsurgical and Postsurgical Management of Low Back Pain - p. 2445 446. 313. Complication Avoidance in Spine Surgery - p. 2453 447. 314. Predictive Analytics in the Treatment of Spinal Disorders - p. 2458 448. Part 3. Degenerative Disease of the Spine - p. 2464.e2 449. 315. Evaluation and Treatment of Cervical Disk Herniations - p. 2465 450. 316. Evaluation and Treatment of Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament - p. 2477 451. 317. Evaluation and Treatment of Thoracic Disk Herniation - p. 2486 452. 318. Evaluation and Treatment of Lumbar Disk Disease - p. 2494 453. 319. Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Stenosis - p. 2498 454. 320. Evaluation and Treatment of Degenerative Lumbar Spondylolisthesis - p. 2510 455. 321. Evaluation and Treatment of Degenerative Cervical Myelopathy - p. 2517 456. Part 4. Infection of the Spine - p. 2525.e4 457. 322. Evaluation and Treatment of Spinal Epidural Abscess - p. 2526 458. 323. Treatment of Pyogenic Spondylodiscitis - p. 2531 459. 324. Evaluation and Treatment of Fungal and Tubercular Infections of the Spine - p. 2537 460. Part 5. Tumors of the Spine - p. 2537.e20 461. 325. Evaluation and Treatment of Benign Tumors of the Axial Skeleton - p. 2538 462. 326. Evaluation and Treatment of Primary Malignant Tumors of the Axial Skeleton - p. 2546 463. 327. Evaluation and Treatment of Benign Intradural Extramedullary Tumors - p. 2547 464. 328. Evaluation and Treatment of Metastatic Spinal Lesions - p. 2555 465. 329. Evaluation and Treatment of Malignant PrimarySpinal Tumors - p. 2570 466. Part 6. Inflammatory Diseases of the Spine - p. 2575.e3 467. 330. Evaluation and Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Inflammatory Spinal Diseases - p. 2576 468. 331. Evaluation and Treatment of Ankylosing Spondylitis and Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis - p. 2581 469. Part 7. Congenital Anomalies of the Spine - p. 2587.e2 470. 332. Adult Congenital Malformations of the Thoracic and Lumbar Spine - p. 2588 471. 333. Adult Tethered Cord Syndrome - p. 2594 472. 334. Adult Syringomyelia - p. 2601 473. Part 8. Spinal Trauma - p. 2606.e2 474. 335. Evaluation and Classification of Spinal Instability - p. 2607 475. 336. Medical Management of Spinal Cord Injury - p. 2618 476. 337. Prognosis in Spinal Trauma - p. 2631 477. 338. Classification and Treatment of O–C1 Craniocervical Injuries - p. 2639 478. 339. Evaluation and Treatment of C2 (Axis) Fractures and Instability - p. 2646 479. 340. Evaluation, Classification, and Treatment of Subaxial Cervical (C3–C7) Injuries - p. 2653 480. 341. Evaluation and Treatment of Cervicothoracic Junction Injuries - p. 2660 481. 342. Evaluation and Management of Athletic Injuries of the Cervical Spine - p. 2667 482. 343. Evaluation, Classification, and Treatment of Thoracolumbar Spine Injuries - p. 2672 483. 344. Evaluation and Treatment of Osteoporotic Fractures (Cement Augmentation) - p. 2680 484. 345. Rehabilitation of Acute Spinal Cord Injury - p. 2694 485. Part 9. Spinal Deformities - p. 2704.e6 486. 346. Classification of Spinal Deformity - p. 2705 487. 347. Evaluation of Spinal Alignment - p. 2711 488. 348. Evaluation and Treatment of Cervical Deformity - p. 2720 489. 349. Evaluation and Treatment of Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis - p. 2729 490. 350. Evaluation and Treatment of Scheuermann Kyphosis - p. 2738 491. 351. Evaluation and Treatment of Adult Scoliosis and Sagittal Plane Deformity - p. 2743 492. 352. Evaluation and Treatment of Proximal Junctional Kyphosis - p. 2758 493. 353. Treatment of High-Grade Spondylolisthesis - p. 2763 494. Part 10. Techniques for Spinal Procedures - p. 2778.e3 495. 354. Bone Graft Options, Graft Substitutes, and Harvest Techniques - p. 2779 496. 355. Cervical Arthroplasty - p. 2785 497. 356. Lumbar Disk Arthroplasty - p. 2788 498. 357. Occiput, C1, and C2 Instrumentation - p. 2794 499. 358. Anterior Cervical Instrumentation - p. 2795 500. 359. Posterior Subaxial and Cervicothoracic Instrumentation - p. 2807 501. 360. Anterior Thoracic Instrumentation - p. 2815 502. 361. Anterior and Lateral Lumbar Instrumentation - p. 2822 503. 362. Posterior Thoracic and Lumbar Instrumentation - p. 2830 504. 363. Posterior, Transforaminal, and Anterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion: Techniques and Instrumentation - p. 2831 505. 364. Image-Guided Spinal Navigation: Principles and Clinical Applications - p. 2836 506. 365. Sacropelvic Fixation: Anterior and Posterior Options - p. 2842 507. 366. Spinal Osteotomies - p. 2848 508. 367. Evaluation, Indications, and Techniques of Revision Spine Surgery - p. 2853 509. Part 11. Minimally Invasive Techniques for Spinal Procedures - p. 2853.e27 510. 368. Minimally Invasive Decompression Techniques - p. 2854 511. 369. Minimally Invasive Lateral and Anterolateral Approaches to the Lumbar Spine - p. 2861 512. Chapter 370. Minimally Invasive Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion and Posterior Approaches to Spine - p. 2867 513. 371. Endoscopic Approaches and Applications for Lumbar Spinal Procedures - p. 2872 514. 372. Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery for Adult Spinal Deformity: Principles and Applications - p. 2882 515. Section XII. Trauma: Overview and Controversies - p. 2895.e5 516. Introduction - p. 2897 517. Part 1. Basic and Clinical Science of Neurotrauma - p. 2902.e2 518. 373. Epidemiology of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2903 519. 374. Biomechanical Basis of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2911 520. 375. Neuropathology of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2912 521. 376. Animal Models of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2913 522. 377. Genetics of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2916 523. 378. Neurochemical Pathomechanisms in Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2925 524. 379. Traumatic Brain Injury: Proteomic Biomarkers - p. 2940 525. 380. Therapeutic Strategies for Repair and Regeneration Following Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2945 526. 381. International Initiatives to Advance Knowledgein Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2958 527. Part 2. Radiology in Traumatic Brain Surgery - p. 2965.e2 528. 382. Structural Neuroimaging of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2966 529. 383. Advanced Structural and Functional Imaging of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2967 530. Part 3. Management of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2967.e9 531. 384. Clinical Pathophysiology of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2968 532. 385. Sport-Related Concussion - p. 2983 533. 386. Initial Resuscitation, Prehospital Care, and Emergency Department Care in Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2994 534. 387. Critical Care Management of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3003 535. 388. Invasive Physiologic Monitoring for Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3027 536. 389. Noninvasive Neuromonitoring for Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3041 537. 390. Electrophysiologic Monitoring for Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3050 538. 391. Surgical Management of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3059 539. 392. Traumatic Brain Injury Care in Resource-Challenged Environments - p. 3083 540. 393. Surgical Management and Prognosis of Penetrating Brain Injury - p. 3092 541. 394. Cranioplasty - p. 3105 542. 395. Surgical Considerations for Patients With Polytrauma - p. 3106 543. 396. Blast-Induced Neurotrauma - p. 3113 544. 397. Indications and Techniques for Cranial Decompression After Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3124 545. 398. Craniofacial Injuries - p. 3135 546. Part 4. Sequelae and Outcome in Traumatic Brain Surgery - p. 3151.e2 547. 399. Prognosis After Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3152 548. 400. Traumatic Cerebrospinal Fluid Fistulas - p. 3163 549. 401. Rehabilitation of Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3170 550. Role of Rehabilitation - p. 3170 551. Mechanisms of Recovery After Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3171 552. Prognosis and Recovery of Brain Injury - p. 3172 553. Cognitive Dysfunction in Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3172 554. Agitation and Aggression - p. 3179 555. Sleep Disturbance - p. 3180 556. Depression - p. 3182 557. Apathy - p. 3183 558. Upper Motor Neuron Sequelae - p. 3183 559. General Supportive Measures - p. 3186 560. Pain Syndromes - p. 3186 561. Specific Syndromes - p. 3189 562. The Future of Rehabilitation - p. 3192 563. 402. Long-term Sequelae of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3193 564. Section XIII. Microsurgical and Interventional Treatment of Vascular Diseases: Overview and Controversies - p. 3201.e3 565. Introduction - p. 3202 566. Part 1. Basic and Applied Science of Vascular Disorders - p. 3206.e2 567. 403. Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism and Cerebral Ischemia - p. 3207 568. Cerebral Metabolism - p. 3207 569. Cerebral Blood Flow - p. 3.2070000001E10 570. Clinical Measurement of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism - p. 3.207E18 571. Cerebral Ischemia - p. 3.207E22 572. Conclusion - p. 3.207E31 573. 404. Intraoperative Cerebral Protection - p. 3208 574. Part 2. Approach to the Patient: Evaluation and Management of the Vascular Patient - p. 3218.e7 575. 405. Acute Medical Management of Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke - p. 3219 576. 406. Acute Surgical and Endovascular Management of Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke - p. 3223 577. 407. Antiplatelet and Anticoagulation Therapy for Interventional and Microvascular Procedures and Patients - p. 3236 578. 408. Neuroanesthesia for Microvascular and Interventional Cerebrovascular Procedures - p. 3243 579. 409. Vascular Access for Neuroendovascular Procedures - p. 3248 580. Part 3. Diagnostic Evaluation - p. 3248.e10 581. 410. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Neurosonology - p. 3249 582. 411. Neurovascular Imaging - p. 3263 583. 412. Frontal Electroencephalography for Anesthetic Management in Neurosurgery - p. 3274 584. Part 4. Occlusive Vascular Disease - p. 3284.e3 585. 413. The Natural History and Medical Management of Carotid Occlusive Disease - p. 3285 586. 414. Carotid Endarterectomy - p. 3289 587. 415. Carotid Artery Angioplasty and Stenting - p. 3300 588. 416. Blunt Cerebrovascular Injury - p. 3317 589. 417. Nonatherosclerotic Carotid Lesions - p. 3323 590. 418. Extracranial Vertebral Artery Diseases - p. 3333 591. 419. Microsurgical Management of Intracranial Occlusion Disease - p. 3349 592. 420. Endovascular Management of Intracranial Occlusion Disease - p. 3357 593. 421. Adult Moyamoya Angiopathy - p. 3361 594. 422. Cerebral Venous and Sinus Thrombosis - p. 3369 595. Part 5. Nonlesional Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage - p. 3384.e3 596. 423. Nonlesional Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage - p. 3385 597. Part 6. Aneurysms - p. 3399.e4 598. 424. Genetics of Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3400 599. 425. The Natural History of Cerebral Aneurysms - p. 3401 600. 426. Pathobiology of Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3420 601. 427. Surgical Decision Making for the Treatment of Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3428 602. Introduction - p. 3428 603. Decision Making - p. 3428 604. The Unruptured Aneurysm - p. 3429 605. The Ruptured Aneurysm - p. 3434 606. Institutional Considerations in Surgical Decision Making for Cerebral Aneurysms - p. 3440 607. Special Circumstances - p. 3441 608. Endovascular Aneurysm Occlusion - p. 3447 609. 428. Perioperative Management of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage - p. 3459 610. 429. Open Versus Endovascular Treatment of Ruptured Aneurysms: 10-Year BRAT Report and Overview of Other Trials - p. 3480 611. Interventional Therapy - p. 3486.e1 612. 430. Endovascular Approaches to Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3487 613. 431. Endovascular Approaches to Narrow-necked Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3495 614. 432. Endovascular Approaches to Wide-Necked Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3508 615. 433. Endovascular Flow Diversion for Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3514 616. 434. Endovascular Hunterian Ligation - p. 3522 617. Microvascular Surgery - p. 3528.e1 618. 435. Surgical Approaches to Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3529 619. 436. Microsurgery of Paraclinoid Aneurysms - p. 3538 620. 437. Intracranial Internal Carotid Artery Aneurysms - p. 3548 621. 438. Microsurgery of Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysms - p. 3555 622. 439. Microsurgery of Distal Anterior Cerebral Artery Aneurysms - p. 3561 623. 440. Surgical Management of Middle Cerebral Artery Aneurysms - p. 3568 624. 441. Microsurgery of Vertebral Artery and Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery Aneurysms - p. 3578 625. 442. Microsurgery of Basilar Apex Aneurysms - p. 3587 626. 443. Microsurgical Management of Giant Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3600 627. 444. Medical, Microsurgical, and Interventional Treatment of Infectious Aneurysms - p. 3616 628. 445. Revascularization Techniques for Complex Aneurysms and Skull Base Tumors - p. 3623 629. 446. Multimodality Treatments of Cerebrovascular Disorders - p. 3636 630. 447. Traumatic Cerebral Aneurysms Secondary to Penetrating Intracranial Injuries - p. 3642 631. Postprocedural Therapy - p. 3646.e3 632. 448. Medical Management of Cerebral Vasospasm - p. 3647 633. 449. Endovascular Management of Cerebral Vasospasm - p. 3658 634. Part 7. True Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3658.e6 635. 450. Pathobiology of True Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3659 636. 451. Epidemiology and Natural History of Cerebral Vascular Malformations - p. 3671 637. 452. Therapeutic Decision Making in the Management of Arteriovenous Malformations of the Brain - p. 3677 638. 453. Adjuvant Endovascular Management of Brain Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3678 639. 454. Endovascular Management of Arteriovenous Malformations for Cure - p. 3684 640. 455. Microsurgery of Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3694 641. 456. Surgical and Radiosurgical Management of Grade IV and V Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3717 642. Part 8. Arteriovenous Fistulas - p. 3732.e3 643. 457. Carotid-Cavernous Fistulas - p. 3733 644. 458. Treatment of Other Intracranial Dural Arteriovenous Fistulas - p. 3741 645. Part 9. Cavernomas - p. 3748.e2 646. 459. Natural History of Cavernous Malformations - p. 3749 647. 460. Genetics of Cerebral Cavernous Malformations - p. 3760 648. 461. Microsurgery for Cerebral Cavernous Malformations - p. 3769 649. Part 10. Arteriovenous Malformations and Fistulas of the Spine - p. 3778.e1 650. 462. Classification of Spinal Arteriovenous Lesions - p. 3779 651. 463. Endovascular Treatment of Spinal Vascular Malformations - p. 3784 652. 464. Microsurgical Treatment of Spinal Vascular Malformations - p. 3796 653. Index - p. I-1