Youmans and Winn Neurological Surgery E-Book

1. Section I & II. Introduction and General Neurosurgery: Overview and Controversies - p. cix 2. Introduction - p. cix 3. Part 1. History - p. 8 4. 1. Historical Overview of Neurosurgery - p. 8 5. Neurosurgery in the Prehistoric Period - p. 9 6. Ancient Egyptian Neurosurgery - p. 9 7. Classical Period: Greek and Byzantine Neurosurgery - p. 9 8. Islamic/Arabic Medicine: Prescholastic Period - p. 9.000001E6 9. Middle ages: the age of Medieval Medical Scholasticism - p. 9.00000001E8 10. Origins of Neurosurgical Practice in the Renaissance - p. 9.000000000001E12 11. Surgeons of the Insurgency: Seventeenth Century - p. 9.0E18 12. Eighteenth Century: an Enlightened Period for Neurosurgery - p. 9.0E24 13. Nineteenth Century: Incunabula Period of Modern Neurosurgery - p. 9.0E30 14. Further Advances in Neurosurgery: Twentieth Century - p. 9.0E38 15. Concluding Thoughts - p. 9.0E38 16. Part 2. Surgical Anatomy - p. 9.e44 17. 2. Surgical Anatomy of the Brain - p. 9.e44 18. Introduction - p. 10 19. Cerebrum - p. 12 20. Posterior Fossa - p. 34 21. 3. Surgical Anatomy of the Skull Base - p. 48.e1 22. 4. Surgical Anatomy of the Spine - p. 78 23. Part 3. Approach to the Patient - p. 99.e2 24. 5. Precision Medicine in Neurosurgery - p. 99.e2 25. 6. Improving Patient Safety - p. 105.e3 26. 7. Neuroanesthesia: Preoperative Evaluation - p. 110.e2 27. 8. Preoperative Assessment by Navigated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation - p. 123.e3 28. 9. Classification Systems in Neurosurgery - p. 130.e3 29. Part 4. Overview of Radiology - p. 136.e1 30. 10. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain - p. 136.e1 31. 11. Radiology of the Spine - p. 167.e3 32. 12. Physiologic Evaluation of the Brain With Magnetic Resonance Imaging - p. 196.e35 33. 13. Molecular Imaging of the Brain with Positron Emission Tomography - p. 197.e36 34. 14. Diffusion Tensor Imaging - p. 198.e13 35. Part 5. Related Systems - p. 199.e21 36. 15. Neuro-ophthalmology - p. 199.e21 37. 16. Neurotology - p. 200.e30 38. 17. Neurourology - p. 201.e26 39. 18. Coagulation for the Neurosurgeon - p. 202.e16 40. 19. The Microbiome and the Central Nervous System - p. 212.e2 41. 20. Peripheral Venous Disease in the Neurosurgery Patient - p. 216.e2 42. Part 1. The Operating Room - p. 221.e2 43. 21. Surgical Planning - p. 221.e2 44. 22. Avoidance of Complications in Neurosurgery - p. 227 45. Complications Related to Patient Positioning - p. 228 46. Catastrophic Medical Complications - p. 22801 47. Risk Factors Related to Anatomy or Technique in Specific Surgical Procedures - p. 2.280001E6 48. Conclusion - p. 2.28E19 49. 23. Incisions and Closures - p. 228.e29 50. 24. Positioning for Cranial Surgery - p. 229.e17 51. 25. Positioning for Spine Surgery - p. 230.e8 52. 26. Positioning for Peripheral Nerve Surgery - p. 231.e8 53. 27. Surgical Simulation - p. 232.e6 54. 28. Robotics in Cranial Neurosurgery - p. 233.e10 55. 29. Spinal Robotic Surgery - p. 234.e5 56. 30. Augmented Reality as an Aid in Neurosurgery - p. 235.e5 57. 31. Visualization and Optics in Neurosurgery - p. 246.e4 58. 32. Microscope Integration and Heads-Up Display in Brain Surgery - p. 257.e1 59. 33. Brain Retraction - p. 258.e13 60. 34. Advantages and Limitations of Cranial Endoscopy - p. 265.e2 61. Part 2. Intensive Care - p. 274.e4 62. 35. Principles of Neurocritical Care - p. 274.e4 63. 36. The Neurosurgical Intensive Care Unit and the Unique Role of the Neurosurgeon - p. 282.e4 64. 37. Intracranial Pressure Monitoring - p. 287 65. Part 3. Neurosurgical Care in the Geriatric Patient - p. 295.e3 66. 38. The Geriatric Patient: Age-Related Pathophysiologic Changes and Anesthesia Considerations - p. 295.e3 67. 39. Brain Tumor Management in the Geriatric Patient - p. 305.e1 68. 40. Traumatic Brain Injury in the Geriatric Patient - p. 313.e3 69. Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus - p. 320.e3 70. 41. Genetics of Idiopathic Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus - p. 320.e3 71. 42. Production and Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid - p. 321.e6 72. 43. Clinical Evaluation of Hydrocephalus in Adults - p. 322.e15 73. 44. Shunting - p. 332.e3 74. 45. The Role of Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy: A Critical Review - p. 344.e2 75. Chronic Subdural Hematomas - p. 352.e2 76. 46. Pathophysiology of Chronic Subdural Hematomas - p. 352.e2 77. 47. Medical and Surgical Management of Chronic Subdural Hematomas - p. 359.e2 78. Part 4. Neurosurgical Care in the Pregnant Patient - p. 367.e2 79. 48. Systemic and Central Nervous System Changes During Pregnancy - p. 367.e2 80. 49. Neuroanesthesia During Pregnancy - p. 376.e4 81. 50. Vascular Lesions During Pregnancy - p. 385 82. 51. Brain Tumors During Pregnancy - p. 390.e2 83. Part 5. Infections in Neurosurgery - p. 399.e5 84. 52. Basic Science of Central Nervous System Infections - p. 399.e5 85. 53. Postoperative Infections of the Head and Brain - p. 400.e19 86. 54. Postoperative Infections of the Spine - p. 412.e4 87. 55. The Use and Misuse of Antibiotics in Neurosurgery - p. 421.e5 88. 56. Brain Abscess - p. 429.e4 89. 57. Meningitis and Encephalitis - p. 431.e23 90. 58. Neurological Manifestations of HIV and AIDS - p. 432.e22 91. 59. Parasitic Infections - p. 433.e21 92. 60. Surgical Risk of Blood-Borne Transmissible Disease - p. 435.e10 93. Section III. Basic and Clinical Sciences: Overview and Controversies - p. 443.e3 94. Introduction - p. 443.e3 95. 61. Molecular Biological Approaches for Understanding the Nervous System: A Primer for Neurosurgeons - p. 445 96. 62. Optogenetics and Clarity - p. 464.e8 97. 63. Neuroembryology - p. 465.e13 98. 64. Stem Cell Biology in the Central Nervous System - p. 466.e29 99. 65. Neurons and Neuroglia - p. 467.e14 100. 66. Cellular Mechanisms of Brain Energy Metabolism - p. 468.e24 101. 67. Cellular and Molecular Responses in the Peripheral and Central Nervous System Following Axonal Injury - p. 469.e29 102. 68. The Blood-Brain Barrier - p. 470.e7 103. 69. Physiology of the Cerebrospinal Fluid and Intracranial Pressure - p. 471.e25 104. 70. Cerebral Edema - p. 472.e18 105. 71. Extracellular Fluid Movement and Clearance in the Brain: The Glymphatic Pathway - p. 473.e13 106. 72. Altered Consciousness - p. 474.e12 107. 73. Neuropsychological Testing - p. 475.e8 108. 74. Biosensors in Neurosurgery: Wearable and Implantable Devices for Monitoring - p. 476.e7 109. 75. Artificial Intelligence and Big Data in Neurosurgery - p. 477.e10 110. 76. Neurosurgical Epidemiology, Research, and Biostatistics - p. 478.e12 111. Section IV. Epilepsy: Overview and Controversies - p. 479.e13 112. Introduction - p. 479.e13 113. Part 1. Basic Science of Epilepsy - p. 485.e4 114. 77. Electrophysiologic Properties of the Mammalian Central Nervous System - p. 485.e4 115. 78. Animal Models of Epilepsy - p. 486.e27 116. 79. Malformations of Cortical Development - p. 487.e14 117. Part 2. Approach to the Epileptic Patient - p. 488.e11 118. 80. Diagnosis and Classification of Seizures and Epilepsy - p. 488.e11 119. 81. Antiseizure Medications: Principles of Clinical Use - p. 495.e2 120. 82. Electroencephalography in Outpatient, Epilepsy Monitoring Unit, and Intensive Care Unit Settings - p. 501.e2 121. Part 3. Preoperative Evaluation for Epilepsy - p. 502.e25 122. 83. Evaluation of Patients for Epilepsy Surgery - p. 502.e25 123. 84. Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Epilepsy Surgery - p. 506.e3 124. 85. Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography in Epilepsy Surgery Evaluation - p. 519.e3 125. 86. Magnetoencephalography/Magnetic Source Imaging - p. 522.e1 126. 87. Wada Testing - p. 536.e6 127. 88. Preoperative Functional Localization - p. 542.e2 128. Part 4. Intracranial Recordings - p. 548.e3 129. 89. Intracranial Monitoring with Subdural Grids and Strips - p. 548.e3 130. 90. Intracranial Monitoring: Stereo-electroencephalography Recording - p. 561.e3 131. 91. Intraoperative Electrocorticography and Strategy in Tailored Lesionectomies - p. 570.e3 132. 92. Intraoperative Mapping and Monitoring for Cortical Resection - p. 578.e2 133. 93. Investigation of Human Cognition in Epilepsy Surgery Patients - p. 584.e2 134. Part 5. Specific Operative Approaches - p. 595.e4 135. 94A. Anteromedial Temporal Lobectomy - p. 595.e4 136. 94B. Selective Amygdalohippocampectomy - p. 601.e1 137. 95. Resections for Extratemporal Epilepsy - p. 604.e2 138. 96. Palliative Procedures for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy - p. 614.e3 139. 97. Radiosurgical Treatment for Epilepsy - p. 615.e20 140. 98. Laser Interstitial Thermal Therapy in Epilepsy - p. 628.e5 141. 99. Hemispheric Disconnection Procedures - p. 635.e3 142. 100. Electrical Stimulation for Epilepsy (VNS, DBS, and RNS) - p. 645.e2 143. 101. Epilepsy Surgery: Outcomes and Complications - p. 666.e4 144. Section V. Functional Neurosurgery: Overview and Controversies - p. 667.e25 145. Introduction - p. 667.e25 146. Part 1. Basic Science of Movement Disorders - p. 670 147. 102. Anatomy and Synaptic Connectivity of the Basal Ganglia - p. 670 148. 103. Rationale for Surgical Interventions in Movement Disorders - p. 671.e22 149. 104. Neuropathology of Movement Disorders - p. 680.e6 150. Functional Anatomy of Basal Ganglia - p. 681.e1 151. α-Synucleinopathies - p. 681.e5 152. Hypokinetic-Rigid Movement Disorders - p. 681.e5 153. Lewy Body–Associated Disorders - p. 681.e5 154. Tauopathies - p. 681.e18 155. Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders - p. 681.e22 156. Conclusion - p. 681.e29 157. Part 2. Neurology of Movement Disorders - p. 681.e51 158. 105. Clinical Overview of Movement Disorders - p. 681.e51 159. 106. Patient Selection Criteria for Deep Brain Stimulation in Movement Disorders - p. 694.e8 160. 107. Functional Imaging in Movement Disorders - p. 704.e5 161. 108. Neuroimaging in Stereotactic Functional Neurosurgery - p. 709.e2 162. Part 3. Surgery for Movement Disorders - p. 712.e2 163. 109. Surgical Management of Tremor - p. 712.e2 164. 110. Ablative Procedures for Parkinson Disease - p. 720.e3 165. 111. Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson Disease - p. 730.e9 166. 112. Deep Brain Stimulation for Dystonia - p. 738.e2 167. 113. Deep Brain Stimulation: Mechanisms of Action - p. 747.e3 168. 114. Complication Avoidance in Deep Brain Stimulation Surgery - p. 760.e7 169. 115. Neurophysiologic Monitoring for Movement Disorder Surgery - p. 768.e5 170. 116. Emerging and Experimental Neurosurgical Treatments for Parkinson’s Disease - p. 769.e11 171. 117. Transcranial Magnetic Resonance–Guided Focused Ultrasound Thalamotomy for Tremor - p. 770.e12 172. 118. Selective Peripheral Denervation for Cervical Dystonia - p. 779.e3 173. 119. Thalamotomy for Focal Hand Dystonia - p. 785.e2 174. Part 4. Surgery for Psychiatric Disorders - p. 791.e2 175. 120. History and Ethical Considerations in Functional Neurosurgery - p. 791.e2 176. 121. Surgery for Tourette Syndrome - p. 797.e2 177. 122. Surgery for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - p. 802.e2 178. 123. Surgery for Major Depressive Disorder - p. 813.e4 179. 124. Surgery for Anorexia Nervosa - p. 823.e3 180. 125. Surgery and Neuroscience of Addiction - p. 831.e3 181. Part 5. Surgical Interventions for Spasticity - p. 839.e3 182. 126. Lesioning Surgery for Spasticity - p. 839.e3 183. 127. Management of Spasticity by Central Nervous System Infusion Techniques - p. 852.e2 184. Part 6. Surgery for Vertigo, Cortical Stimulation, Obesity, Alzheimer Disease, and Neuroprosthetics - p. 863.e3 185. 128. Treatment of Intractable Vertigo - p. 863.e3 186. 129. Motor Cortex Stimulation for Pain and Movement Disorders - p. 864.e14 187. 130. Deep Brain Stimulation for Obesity - p. 868.e3 188. 131. Deep Brain Stimulation for Alzheimer Disease - p. 873.e2 189. 132. Neuroprosthetics - p. 879.e2 190. Volume 2 - p. 886.e2 191. Section VI. Oncology: Overview and Controversies - p. 886.e2 192. Introduction - p. 886.e2 193. Part 1. Basic Science of Neurooncology - p. 898.e7 194. 133. Brain Tumors: An Overview of Current Histopathologic and Genetic Classifications - p. 898.e7 195. 134. Brain Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy - p. 912.e1 196. 135. Brain Tumor Stem Cells - p. 922.e3 197. 136. Molecular Genetics and the Development of Targets for Glioma Therapy - p. 930.e2 198. 137. The Genetic Origins of Brain Cancers - p. 943.e2 199. 138. Malignant Glioma Microenvironment - p. 951.e2 200. 139. Basic Science of Brain Metastases - p. 952.e16 201. 140. Angiogenesis and Brain Tumors: Scientific Principles, Current Therapy, and Future Directions - p. 969.e5 202. Historical Perspective - p. 970 203. Angiotherapy: A Novel Approach To Glioma Therapy - p. 97001 204. Mechanisms of Tumor Angiogenesis - p. 970001 205. Reduction of Vasogenic Edema, Radioprotection, and Radiosensitization - p. 9.700000001E9 206. Clinical Experience With the Use of Bevacizumab - p. 9.700000000001E12 207. Bevacizumab Resistance and Glioma Recurrence - p. 9.7E16 208. The Role of Anti-Vegf Therapy For Other CNS Tumors - p. 9.7E19 209. Brain Metastases - p. 9.7E20 210. Pediatric Brain Tumors - p. 9.7E20 211. Current Trends and Future Directions - p. 9.7E20 212. Conclusion - p. 9.7E23 213. Online Resources of Angiogenesis in Brain Tumors - p. 9.7E23 214. 141. Delivery of Therapy to Brain Tumors: Problems and Potentials - p. 970.e33 215. 142. Epidemiology of Brain Tumors - p. 978.e3 216. Part 2. Approach to the Neuro-Oncology Patient - p. 985.e3 217. 143. Clinical Features: Neurology of Brain Tumor and Paraneoplastic Disorders - p. 985.e3 218. 144. Radiologic Features of Central Nervous System Tumors - p. 992.e3 219. 145. Endovascular Techniques for Tumor Embolization - p. 1011.e3 220. 146. Genetic Syndromes of Brain Tumors - p. 1019.e2 221. 147. Principles of Chemotherapy - p. 1027.e3 222. 148. Brain Tumor Outcome Studies: Design and Interpretation - p. 1033.e2 223. 149. Neurocognition in Brain Tumor Patients - p. 1034.e17 224. 150. Frame and Frameless Stereotactic Brain Biopsy - p. 1040.e3 225. Part 3. Surgical Considerations in Neuro-Oncology - p. 1048.e2 226. 151. Basic Principles of Cranial Surgery for Brain Tumors - p. 1048.e2 227. 152. Basic Principles of Skull Base Surgery - p. 1049.e9 228. 153. Risks of Intrinsic Brain Tumor Surgery and Avoidance of Complications - p. 1060.e4 229. 154. Surgical Navigation for Brain Tumors - p. 1069.e2 230. 155. Endoscopic Approaches to Brain Tumors - p. 1075.e3 231. 156. Awake Craniotomy and Intraoperative Mapping - p. 1081.e1 232. 157A. Intraoperative Magnetic Resonance Imaging - p. 1087.e2 233. 157B. Fluorescence-guided Brain Tumor Surgery - p. 1089.e1 234. Part 4. Intrinsic and Ventricular Tumors - p. 1090.e12 235. 158. Low-Grade Gliomas: Diffuse Astrocytoma and Oligodendroglioma - p. 1090.e12 236. 159. Malignant Gliomas: Anaplastic Astrocytoma, Glioblastoma, Gliosarcoma, and Anaplastic Oligodendroglioma - p. 1099.e4 237. 160. Radiologic and Clinical Criteria of Treatment Response - p. 1117.e7 238. 161. Unusual Gliomas - p. 1118.e6 239. 162. Local Therapies for Gliomas - p. 1130.e2 240. 163. Central Nervous System Embryonal Tumors - p. 1138.e4 241. 164. Pineal Tumors - p. 1146.e2 242. 165. Medulloblastomas in Adults - p. 1161.e4 243. 166. Intracranial Ependymomas in Adults - p. 1166.e2 244. 167. Hemangioblastomas - p. 1170.e2 245. 168. Primary Central Nervous System Lymphomas - p. 1180.e2 246. 169. Metastatic Brain Tumors - p. 1186.e2 247. 170. Ventricular Tumors - p. 1202.e7 248. 171. Colloid Cysts of the Third Ventricle - p. 1233.e4 249. Part 5. Extrinsic Tumors - p. 1240.e2 250. 172. Meningiomas - p. 1240.e2 251. 173. Mesenchymal Nonmeningothelial Tumors - p. 1269.e6 252. 174. Vestibular Schwannomas - p. 1277.e3 253. 175. Pituitary Tumors: Functioning and Nonfunctioning - p. 1291.e3 254. 176. Craniopharyngiomas in Adults - p. 1320.e5 255. 177. Epidermoid, Dermoid, and Neurenteric Cysts - p. 1324.e2 256. 178. Endoscopic Endonasal Surgery for Skull Base Tumors - p. 1332.e1 257. Part 6. Skull and Skull Base Tumors - p. 1340.e1 258. 179. Overview of Skull Base Tumors - p. 1340.e1 259. 180. Chordomas and Chondrosarcomas - p. 1364.e3 260. 181. Head and Neck Paragangliomas - p. 1374.e6 261. Nomenclature - p. 1375 262. General Overview - p. 1375 263. Historical Background - p. 1377 264. Tumor Characteristics - p. 1381 265. Typical Aspects According to Origin, Clinical Signs, and Symptoms - p. 1384 266. Diagnosis - p. 1385 267. Treatment - p. 1387 268. Conclusion - p. 1396 269. 182. Neoplasms of the Paranasal Sinuses - p. 1396.e9 270. 183. Esthesioneuroblastoma - p. 1411.e5 271. 184. Trigeminal Schwannomas - p. 1420.e3 272. 185. Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibromas - p. 1430.e2 273. 186. Tumors of the Orbit - p. 1431.e10 274. 187. Skull Tumors - p. 1443.e1 275. 188. Scalp Tumors - p. 1444.e26 276. Part 7. Nonneoplastic Disorders Mimicking Brain Tumors - p. 1452.e2 277. 189. Pseudotumor Cerebri - p. 1452.e2 278. 190. Sarcoidosis, Tuberculosis, and Demyelinating Disease - p. 1464.e3 279. Section VII. Pain: Overview and Controversies - p. 1471.e1 280. Introduction - p. 1471.e1 281. Part 1. Basic Science - p. 1477.e3 282. 191. Anatomy and Physiology of Pain - p. 1477.e3 283. 192. Molecular Basis of Nociception - p. 1478.e13 284. Part 2. Nonsurgical Therapy - p. 1479.e8 285. 193. Approach to the Patient With Chronic Pain - p. 1479.e8 286. 194. Pharmacologic Treatment of Pain - p. 1483.e1 287. 195. Management of Pain by Percutaneous Anesthetic Injections and Neurolysis - p. 1493.e2 288. Part 3. Treatment of Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1504.e3 289. 196. Evidence-Based Approach to the Treatment of Facial Pain - p. 1504.e3 290. 197. Trigeminal Neuralgia: Diagnosis and Nonoperative Management - p. 1508.e2 291. 198. Percutaneous Procedures for Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1518.e4 292. 199. Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1525.e3 293. 200. Microvascular Decompression for Trigeminal Neuralgia - p. 1534.e3 294. Part 4. Surgical Procedures for Nontrigeminal Pain - p. 1541.e2 295. 201. Neurosurgical Management of Intractable Pain - p. 1541.e2 296. Neuromodulation - p. 1542.e12 297. 202. Evidence-based Neurostimulation for Pain - p. 1542.e12 298. 203. Peripheral Nerve Stimulation for Neuropathic Pain - p. 1543.e17 299. 204. Spinal Cord Stimulation - p. 1547.e1 300. Destructive Procedures - p. 1555.e3 301. 205. Evidence Base for Destructive Procedures - p. 1555.e3 302. Methods - p. 1556 303. Results - p. 1557 304. Discussion - p. 1560 305. Conclusion - p. 1561 306. 206. Dorsal Rhizotomy and Dorsal Root Ganglionectomy - p. 1562.e7 307. 207. Diagnosis and Management of Painful Neuromas - p. 1565.e1 308. 208. Dorsal Root Entry Zone Lesions for Pain - p. 1570.e2 309. 209. Percutaneous Cordotomy and Trigeminal Tractotomy for Pain - p. 1578.e3 310. Section VIII. Pediatrics: Overview and Controversies - p. 1583.e1 311. Introduction - p. 1583.e1 312. Part 1. Approach to the Pediatric Patient - p. 1589.e2 313. 210. Neuroanesthesia in Children - p. 1589.e2 314. 211. Neurocritical Care in Children - p. 1595.e1 315. Part 2. Cranial Development Abnormalities - p. 1609.e10 316. 212. Neuroembryology and Molecular Genetics of the Brain - p. 1609.e10 317. 213. Cranial Dysraphisms: Encephaloceles, Meningoceles, and Cranial Dermal Sinus Tracts - p. 1620.e6 318. 214. Dandy-Walker Syndrome - p. 1635.e3 319. 215. Arachnoid Cysts in Childhood - p. 1641.e1 320. 216. Chiari Malformations - p. 1646.e2 321. 217. Craniopagus Twins - p. 1658.e3 322. Part 3. Craniosynostosis - p. 1667.e1 323. 218. Molecular Genetics and Principles of Craniosynostosis - p. 1667.e1 324. 219. Nonsyndromic Craniosynostosis: Introduction and Single-Suture Synostosis - p. 1674.e2 325. 220. Syndromic Craniosynostosis - p. 1689.e3 326. 221. Endoscopic Treatment of Craniosynostosis - p. 1690.e19 327. 222. Nonsynostotic Plagiocephaly - p. 1691.e13 328. Part 4. Hydrocephalus in Children - p. 1695.e2 329. 223. Hydrocephalus in Children: Etiology and Overall Management - p. 1695.e2 330. 224. Infantile Post-hemorrhagic Hydrocephalus - p. 1702.e2 331. 225. Cerebrospinal Fluid Disorders and Transitional Neurosurgery - p. 1710.e2 332. 226. Experimental Hydrocephalus - p. 1711.e26 333. 227. Ventricular Shunting Procedures - p. 1713.e16 334. 228. Neuroendoscopy - p. 1728.e7 335. 229. Cerebrospinal Fluid Devices - p. 1736.e5 336. 230. Management and Prevention of Shunt Infections - p. 1742.e2 337. Part 5. Pediatric Cranial and Intracranial Tumors - p. 1748.e2 338. 231. Genetics of Pediatric Brain Tumors - p. 1748.e2 339. 232. General Approaches and Considerations for Pediatric Brain Tumors - p. 1759.e5 340. 233. Optic Pathway Hypothalamic Gliomas - p. 1760.e9 341. 234. Thalamic Tumors - p. 1769.e2 342. 235. Choroid Plexus Tumors - p. 1776.e2 343. 236. Pediatric Craniopharyngiomas - p. 1785.e2 344. 237. Pediatric Supratentorial Hemispheric Tumors - p. 1794.e4 345. 238. Ependymomas - p. 1802.e3 346. 239. Medulloblastomas in Children - p. 1803.e13 347. 240. Cerebellar Astrocytomas - p. 1817.e5 348. 241. Brainstem Gliomas - p. 1823.e2 349. 242. Intracranial Germ Cell Tumors - p. 1831.e4 350. 243. Neurocutaneous Tumor Syndromes - p. 1839.e4 351. 244. Pediatric Intraventricular and Periventricular Tumors - p. 1847.e3 352. 245. Skull Lesions in Children - p. 1855.e2 353. Part 6. Vascular Disease in Children - p. 1860.e2 354. 246. Moyamoya Disease in Children - p. 1860.e2 355. 247. Vein of Galen Aneurysmal Malformation - p. 1868.e4 356. 248. Pediatric Cerebral Aneurysms - p. 1882.e2 357. 249. Pediatric Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 1884.e12 358. Part 7. Head and Brain Trauma in Children - p. 1885.e9 359. 250. Management of Head Injury: Special Considerations in Children - p. 1885.e9 360. 251. Inflicted Trauma (Child Abuse) - p. 1894.e3 361. 252. Growing Skull Fractures - p. 1901.e4 362. 253. Neonatal Brain Injury - p. 1906.e1 363. 254. Birth Brachial Plexus Injury - p. 1911.e2 364. Part 8. Spine Disorders in Children - p. 1912.e5 365. 255. Myelomeningocele and Myelocystocele - p. 1912.e5 366. 256. Fetal Surgery for Myelomeningocele - p. 1925.e3 367. 257. Lipomyelomeningocele - p. 1934.e2 368. 258. Split Spinal Cord - p. 1942.e2 369. 259. Tethered Spinal Cord: Fatty Filum Terminale, Meningocele Manqué, and Dermal Sinus Tracts - p. 1950.e2 370. 260. Developmental Anomalies of the Craniovertebral Junction and Surgical Management - p. 1956.e2 371. 261. Achondroplasia and Other Dwarfisms - p. 1972.e3 372. 262. Surgical Management of the Pediatric Subaxial Cervical Spine - p. 1985.e3 373. 263. Tumors of the Spine, Spinal Canal, and Spinal Cord in Children - p. 1994.e5 374. 264. Introduction to Spinal Deformities in Children - p. 2010.e6 375. 265. Thoracolumbar Spinal Disorders in Pediatric Patients - p. 2025.e3 376. 266. Pediatric Vertebral Column and Spinal Cord Injuries - p. 2037.e4 377. Part 9. Functional Disorders in Children - p. 2038.e23 378. 267. Pediatric Epilepsy Surgery - p. 2038.e23 379. 268. Clinical Features and Management of Cerebral Palsy - p. 2046.e3 380. 269. Intrathecal Baclofen Therapy for Cerebral Palsy - p. 2054.e3 381. 270. Selective Dorsal Rhizotomy for Spastic Cerebral Palsy - p. 2059.e1 382. Volume 3 - p. 2063.e1 383. Section IX. Peripheral Nerve Disorders: Overview and Controversies - p. 2063.e1 384. Introduction - p. 2063.e1 385. Part 1. Basic Science of Peripheral Nerve Disorders - p. 2070 386. 271. Pathophysiology of Surgical Nerve Disorders - p. 2070 387. Part 2. Approach to the Patient With Peripheral Nerve Disorders - p. 2083.e4 388. 272. Peripheral Nerve Examination, Evaluation, and Biopsy - p. 2083.e4 389. 273. Peripheral Neuropathies - p. 2091.e1 390. 274. Monitoring of Neural Function: Electromyography, Nerve Conduction, and Evoked Potentials - p. 2104.e3 391. 275. Imaging for Peripheral Nerve Disorders - p. 2113.e1 392. Part 3. Management of Peripheral Nerve Entrapment - p. 2127.e2 393. 276. Distal Entrapment Syndromes: Carpal Tunnel, Cubital Tunnel, Peroneal, and Tarsal Tunnel - p. 2127.e2 394. 277. Brachial Plexus Nerve Entrapments and Thoracic Outlet Syndromes - p. 2141.e4 395. 278. Piriformis Syndrome, Obturator Internus Syndrome, Pudendal Nerve Entrapment, and Other Pelvic Entrapments - p. 2150.e2 396. Part 4. Management and Repair of Peripheral Nerve Injuries - p. 2160.e2 397. 279. Techniques in Nerve Reconstruction and Repair - p. 2160.e2 398. 280. Nerve Transfers - p. 2168.e2 399. 281. Management of Acute Peripheral Nerve Injuries - p. 2173.e2 400. 282. Early Management of Brachial Plexus Injuries - p. 2183.e1 401. 283. Secondary Procedures for Brachial Plexus Injuries - p. 2184.e9 402. 284. Nerve Injuries of the Lower Extremity - p. 2193.e3 403. Part 5. Management of Peripheral Nerve Tumors - p. 2207.e3 404. 285. Benign and Malignant Tumors of the Peripheral Nerve - p. 2207.e3 405. Part 6. Management of Pain and Complications in Peripheral Nerve Surgery - p. 2222.e4 406. 286. Avoiding Iatrogenic Injury Affecting Nerves and Treatment of Consequent Symptoms - p. 2222.e4 407. Part 7. Peripheral Nerve Treatments in Neurologic Therapeutics - p. 2229.e2 408. 287. Neuroelectronic Systems - p. 2229.e2 409. 288. Peripheral Nerve Surgery for Central Nervous System Disorders - p. 2234.e1 410. 289. Peripheral Nerve Treatments for Central and Autonomic Disorders - p. 2235.e11 411. Section X. Radiation: Overview and Controversies - p. 2241.e1 412. Introduction - p. 2241.e1 413. Part 1. Science of Radiation Techniques - p. 2248.e4 414. 290. General and Historical Considerations of Radiotherapy and Radiosurgery - p. 2248.e4 415. 291. Radiobiology of Radiotherapy and Radiosurgery - p. 2256.e6 416. 292. Radiation Therapy Techniques - p. 2268.e2 417. 293. Radiosurgery Technique - p. 2273.e1 418. 294. Radiology of Radiation Techniques - p. 2282.e1 419. 295. Combining Ionizing Radiation and Systemic Therapies for Treatment of Brain Metastases - p. 2286.e3 420. Part 2. Fractionated Radiation Therapy - p. 2292.e2 421. 296. Fractionated Radiotherapy for Brain Tumors - p. 2292.e2 422. Radiobiology - p. 2293 423. Radiation Delivery: Technical Issues - p. 2294 424. Clinical Applications - p. 2297 425. Complications - p. 2312 426. 297. Fractionated Radiotherapy for Spine Tumors - p. 2314.e9 427. Part 3. Intracranial Stereotactic Radiosurgery - p. 2324.e3 428. 298. Radiosurgery for Malignant Intracranial Tumors - p. 2324.e3 429. 299. Radiosurgery for Benign Intracranial Tumors - p. 2334.e5 430. 300. Radiosurgery for Intracranial Vascular Malformations - p. 2347.e3 431. 301. Radiosurgery for Functional Disorders - p. 2360.e5 432. Part 4. Extracranial Stereotactic Radiosurgery - p. 2365.e2 433. 302. Radiosurgery for Benign Spine Tumors and Spinal Vascular Malformations - p. 2365.e2 434. 303. Radiosurgery for Malignant Axial Spine Tumors - p. 2371.e1 435. Section XI. Spine: Overview and Controversies - p. 2383.e4 436. Introduction - p. 2383.e4 437. Part 1. Basic Science of the Spine - p. 2389.e2 438. 304. Spinal Anatomy - p. 2389.e2 439. 305. Spinal Imaging - p. 2400.e1 440. 306. Spinal Biomechanics and Basics of Spinal Instrumentation - p. 2401.e14 441. 307. Disk Degeneration and Regeneration - p. 2407.e1 442. 308. Pathophysiology and Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury - p. 2414.e3 443. 309. Electrophysiologic Studies and Monitoring - p. 2426.e5 444. 310. Bone Metabolism and Osteoporosis - p. 2436.e2 445. Part 2. Approach to the Patient With a Spinal Disorder - p. 2443.e3 446. 311. Differential Diagnosis of Spinal Disease - p. 2443.e3 447. 312. Nonsurgical and Postsurgical Management of Low Back Pain - p. 2444.e13 448. 313. Complication Avoidance in Spine Surgery - p. 2452.e6 449. 314. Predictive Analytics in the Treatment of Spinal Disorders - p. 2457.e3 450. Part 3. Degenerative Disease of the Spine - p. 2464.e2 451. 315. Evaluation and Treatment of Cervical Disk Herniations - p. 2464.e2 452. 316. Evaluation and Treatment of Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament - p. 2476.e2 453. 317. Evaluation and Treatment of Thoracic Disk Herniation - p. 2485.e3 454. 318. Evaluation and Treatment of Lumbar Disk Disease - p. 2493.e2 455. 319. Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Stenosis - p. 2497.e1 456. 320. Evaluation and Treatment of Degenerative Lumbar Spondylolisthesis - p. 2509.e5 457. 321. Evaluation and Treatment of Degenerative Cervical Myelopathy - p. 2516.e2 458. Part 4. Infection of the Spine - p. 2525.e4 459. 322. Evaluation and Treatment of Spinal Epidural Abscess - p. 2525.e4 460. 323. Treatment of Pyogenic Spondylodiscitis - p. 2530.e2 461. 324. Evaluation and Treatment of Fungal and Tubercular Infections of the Spine - p. 2536.e1 462. Part 5. Tumors of the Spine - p. 2537.e20 463. 325. Evaluation and Treatment of Benign Tumors of the Axial Skeleton - p. 2537.e20 464. 326. Evaluation and Treatment of Primary Malignant Tumors of the Axial Skeleton - p. 2545.e3 465. 327. Evaluation and Treatment of Benign Intradural Extramedullary Tumors - p. 2546.e9 466. 328. Evaluation and Treatment of Metastatic Spinal Lesions - p. 2554.e2 467. 329. Evaluation and Treatment of Malignant PrimarySpinal Tumors - p. 2569.e4 468. Part 6. Inflammatory Diseases of the Spine - p. 2575.e3 469. 330. Evaluation and Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Inflammatory Spinal Diseases - p. 2575.e3 470. 331. Evaluation and Treatment of Ankylosing Spondylitis and Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis - p. 2580 471. Part 7. Congenital Anomalies of the Spine - p. 2587.e2 472. 332. Adult Congenital Malformations of the Thoracic and Lumbar Spine - p. 2587.e2 473. 333. Adult Tethered Cord Syndrome - p. 2593.e2 474. 334. Adult Syringomyelia - p. 2600.e2 475. Part 8. Spinal Trauma - p. 2606.e2 476. 335. Evaluation and Classification of Spinal Instability - p. 2606.e2 477. 336. Medical Management of Spinal Cord Injury - p. 2617.e3 478. 337. Prognosis in Spinal Trauma - p. 2630.e4 479. 338. Classification and Treatment of O–C1 Craniocervical Injuries - p. 2638.e4 480. 339. Evaluation and Treatment of C2 (Axis) Fractures and Instability - p. 2645.e3 481. 340. Evaluation, Classification, and Treatment of Subaxial Cervical (C3–C7) Injuries - p. 2652.e2 482. 341. Evaluation and Treatment of Cervicothoracic Junction Injuries - p. 2659.e2 483. 342. Evaluation and Management of Athletic Injuries of the Cervical Spine - p. 2666.e1 484. 343. Evaluation, Classification, and Treatment of Thoracolumbar Spine Injuries - p. 2671.e2 485. 344. Evaluation and Treatment of Osteoporotic Fractures (Cement Augmentation) - p. 2679.e2 486. 345. Rehabilitation of Acute Spinal Cord Injury - p. 2693.e3 487. Part 9. Spinal Deformities - p. 2704.e6 488. 346. Classification of Spinal Deformity - p. 2704.e6 489. 347. Evaluation of Spinal Alignment - p. 2710.e2 490. 348. Evaluation and Treatment of Cervical Deformity - p. 2719.e2 491. 349. Evaluation and Treatment of Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis - p. 2728.e5 492. 350. Evaluation and Treatment of Scheuermann Kyphosis - p. 2737.e3 493. 351. Evaluation and Treatment of Adult Scoliosis and Sagittal Plane Deformity - p. 2742.e2 494. 352. Evaluation and Treatment of Proximal Junctional Kyphosis - p. 2757.e6 495. 353. Treatment of High-Grade Spondylolisthesis - p. 2762.e2 496. Part 10. Techniques for Spinal Procedures - p. 2778.e3 497. 354. Bone Graft Options, Graft Substitutes, and Harvest Techniques - p. 2778.e3 498. 355. Cervical Arthroplasty - p. 2784.e2 499. 356. Lumbar Disk Arthroplasty - p. 2787.e1 500. 357. Occiput, C1, and C2 Instrumentation - p. 2793.e2 501. 358. Anterior Cervical Instrumentation - p. 2794.e17 502. 359. Posterior Subaxial and Cervicothoracic Instrumentation - p. 2806.e4 503. 360. Anterior Thoracic Instrumentation - p. 2814.e2 504. 361. Anterior and Lateral Lumbar Instrumentation - p. 2821.e2 505. 362. Posterior Thoracic and Lumbar Instrumentation - p. 2829.e2 506. 363. Posterior, Transforaminal, and Anterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion: Techniques and Instrumentation - p. 2830.e14 507. 364. Image-Guided Spinal Navigation: Principles and Clinical Applications - p. 2835 508. 365. Sacropelvic Fixation: Anterior and Posterior Options - p. 2841.e1 509. 366. Spinal Osteotomies - p. 2847.e2 510. 367. Evaluation, Indications, and Techniques of Revision Spine Surgery - p. 2852.e1 511. Part 11. Minimally Invasive Techniques for Spinal Procedures - p. 2853.e27 512. 368. Minimally Invasive Decompression Techniques - p. 2853.e27 513. 369. Minimally Invasive Lateral and Anterolateral Approaches to the Lumbar Spine - p. 2860.e1 514. Chapter 370. Minimally Invasive Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion and Posterior Approaches to Spine - p. 2866.e1 515. 371. Endoscopic Approaches and Applications for Lumbar Spinal Procedures - p. 2871.e2 516. 372. Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery for Adult Spinal Deformity: Principles and Applications - p. 2881.e1 517. Volume 4 - p. 2895.e5 518. Section XII. Trauma: Overview and Controversies - p. 2895.e5 519. Introduction - p. 2895.e5 520. Part 1. Basic and Clinical Science of Neurotrauma - p. 2902.e2 521. 373. Epidemiology of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2902.e2 522. 374. Biomechanical Basis of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2910.e2 523. 375. Neuropathology of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2911.e11 524. 376. Animal Models of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2912.e16 525. 377. Genetics of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2915.e7 526. 378. Neurochemical Pathomechanisms in Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2924.e4 527. 379. Traumatic Brain Injury: Proteomic Biomarkers - p. 2939.e5 528. 380. Therapeutic Strategies for Repair and Regeneration Following Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2944.e2 529. 381. International Initiatives to Advance Knowledgein Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2957.e6 530. Part 2. Radiology in Traumatic Brain Surgery - p. 2965.e2 531. 382. Structural Neuroimaging of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2965.e2 532. 383. Advanced Structural and Functional Imaging of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2966.e21 533. Part 3. Management of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2967.e9 534. 384. Clinical Pathophysiology of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2967.e9 535. 385. Sport-Related Concussion - p. 2982.e7 536. 386. Initial Resuscitation, Prehospital Care, and Emergency Department Care in Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 2993.e21 537. 387. Critical Care Management of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3002.e2 538. 388. Invasive Physiologic Monitoring for Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3026.e6 539. 389. Noninvasive Neuromonitoring for Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3040.e5 540. 390. Electrophysiologic Monitoring for Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3049.e2 541. 391. Surgical Management of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3058.e3 542. 392. Traumatic Brain Injury Care in Resource-Challenged Environments - p. 3082.e3 543. 393. Surgical Management and Prognosis of Penetrating Brain Injury - p. 3091.e2 544. 394. Cranioplasty - p. 3104.e3 545. 395. Surgical Considerations for Patients With Polytrauma - p. 3105.e7 546. 396. Blast-Induced Neurotrauma - p. 3112.e3 547. 397. Indications and Techniques for Cranial Decompression After Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3123.e12 548. 398. Craniofacial Injuries - p. 3134.e2 549. Part 4. Sequelae and Outcome in Traumatic Brain Surgery - p. 3151.e2 550. 399. Prognosis After Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3151.e2 551. 400. Traumatic Cerebrospinal Fluid Fistulas - p. 3162.e3 552. 401. Rehabilitation of Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3169.e3 553. Role of Rehabilitation - p. 3170 554. Mechanisms of Recovery After Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3171 555. Prognosis and Recovery of Brain Injury - p. 3172 556. Cognitive Dysfunction in Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3172 557. Agitation and Aggression - p. 3179 558. Sleep Disturbance - p. 3180 559. Depression - p. 3182 560. Apathy - p. 3183 561. Upper Motor Neuron Sequelae - p. 3183 562. General Supportive Measures - p. 3186 563. Pain Syndromes - p. 3186 564. Specific Syndromes - p. 3189 565. The Future of Rehabilitation - p. 3192 566. 402. Long-term Sequelae of Traumatic Brain Injury - p. 3192.e7 567. Section XIII. Microsurgical and Interventional Treatment of Vascular Diseases: Overview and Controversies - p. 3201.e3 568. Introduction - p. 3201.e3 569. Part 1. Basic and Applied Science of Vascular Disorders - p. 3206.e2 570. 403. Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism and Cerebral Ischemia - p. 3206.e2 571. Cerebral Metabolism - p. 3207 572. Cerebral Blood Flow - p. 3.2070000001E10 573. Clinical Measurement of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism - p. 3.207E18 574. Cerebral Ischemia - p. 3.207E22 575. Conclusion - p. 3.207E31 576. 404. Intraoperative Cerebral Protection - p. 3207.e41 577. Part 2. Approach to the Patient: Evaluation and Management of the Vascular Patient - p. 3218.e7 578. 405. Acute Medical Management of Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke - p. 3218.e7 579. 406. Acute Surgical and Endovascular Management of Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke - p. 3222.e2 580. 407. Antiplatelet and Anticoagulation Therapy for Interventional and Microvascular Procedures and Patients - p. 3235.e4 581. 408. Neuroanesthesia for Microvascular and Interventional Cerebrovascular Procedures - p. 3242.e3 582. 409. Vascular Access for Neuroendovascular Procedures - p. 3247.e2 583. Part 3. Diagnostic Evaluation - p. 3248.e10 584. 410. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Neurosonology - p. 3248.e10 585. 411. Neurovascular Imaging - p. 3262.e4 586. 412. Frontal Electroencephalography for Anesthetic Management in Neurosurgery - p. 3273.e4 587. Part 4. Occlusive Vascular Disease - p. 3284.e3 588. 413. The Natural History and Medical Management of Carotid Occlusive Disease - p. 3284.e3 589. 414. Carotid Endarterectomy - p. 3288.e2 590. 415. Carotid Artery Angioplasty and Stenting - p. 3299.e3 591. 416. Blunt Cerebrovascular Injury - p. 3316.e4 592. 417. Nonatherosclerotic Carotid Lesions - p. 3322.e2 593. 418. Extracranial Vertebral Artery Diseases - p. 3332.e3 594. 419. Microsurgical Management of Intracranial Occlusion Disease - p. 3348.e3 595. 420. Endovascular Management of Intracranial Occlusion Disease - p. 3356.e2 596. 421. Adult Moyamoya Angiopathy - p. 3360.e2 597. 422. Cerebral Venous and Sinus Thrombosis - p. 3368.e3 598. Part 5. Nonlesional Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage - p. 3384.e3 599. 423. Nonlesional Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage - p. 3384.e3 600. Part 6. Aneurysms - p. 3399.e4 601. 424. Genetics of Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3399.e4 602. 425. The Natural History of Cerebral Aneurysms - p. 3400.e13 603. 426. Pathobiology of Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3419.e6 604. 427. Surgical Decision Making for the Treatment of Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3427.e4 605. Introduction - p. 3428 606. Decision Making - p. 3428 607. The Unruptured Aneurysm - p. 3429 608. The Ruptured Aneurysm - p. 3434 609. Institutional Considerations in Surgical Decision Making for Cerebral Aneurysms - p. 3440 610. Special Circumstances - p. 3441 611. Endovascular Aneurysm Occlusion - p. 3447 612. 428. Perioperative Management of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage - p. 3458.e16 613. 429. Open Versus Endovascular Treatment of Ruptured Aneurysms: 10-Year BRAT Report and Overview of Other Trials - p. 3479.e6 614. Interventional Therapy - p. 3486.e1 615. 430. Endovascular Approaches to Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3486.e1 616. 431. Endovascular Approaches to Narrow-necked Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3494.e1 617. 432. Endovascular Approaches to Wide-Necked Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3507.e3 618. 433. Endovascular Flow Diversion for Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3513.e2 619. 434. Endovascular Hunterian Ligation - p. 3521.e4 620. Microvascular Surgery - p. 3528.e1 621. 435. Surgical Approaches to Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3528.e1 622. 436. Microsurgery of Paraclinoid Aneurysms - p. 3537.e1 623. 437. Intracranial Internal Carotid Artery Aneurysms - p. 3547.e1 624. 438. Microsurgery of Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysms - p. 3554.e2 625. 439. Microsurgery of Distal Anterior Cerebral Artery Aneurysms - p. 3560.e2 626. 440. Surgical Management of Middle Cerebral Artery Aneurysms - p. 3567.e1 627. 441. Microsurgery of Vertebral Artery and Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery Aneurysms - p. 3577.e1 628. 442. Microsurgery of Basilar Apex Aneurysms - p. 3586.e2 629. 443. Microsurgical Management of Giant Intracranial Aneurysms - p. 3599.e2 630. 444. Medical, Microsurgical, and Interventional Treatment of Infectious Aneurysms - p. 3615.e3 631. 445. Revascularization Techniques for Complex Aneurysms and Skull Base Tumors - p. 3622.e3 632. 446. Multimodality Treatments of Cerebrovascular Disorders - p. 3635.e3 633. 447. Traumatic Cerebral Aneurysms Secondary to Penetrating Intracranial Injuries - p. 3641.e2 634. Postprocedural Therapy - p. 3646.e3 635. 448. Medical Management of Cerebral Vasospasm - p. 3646.e3 636. 449. Endovascular Management of Cerebral Vasospasm - p. 3657.e6 637. Part 7. True Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3658.e6 638. 450. Pathobiology of True Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3658.e6 639. 451. Epidemiology and Natural History of Cerebral Vascular Malformations - p. 3670.e5 640. 452. Therapeutic Decision Making in the Management of Arteriovenous Malformations of the Brain - p. 3676.e6 641. 453. Adjuvant Endovascular Management of Brain Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3677.e16 642. 454. Endovascular Management of Arteriovenous Malformations for Cure - p. 3683.e2 643. 455. Microsurgery of Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3693.e2 644. 456. Surgical and Radiosurgical Management of Grade IV and V Arteriovenous Malformations - p. 3716.e4 645. Part 8. Arteriovenous Fistulas - p. 3732.e3 646. 457. Carotid-Cavernous Fistulas - p. 3732.e3 647. 458. Treatment of Other Intracranial Dural Arteriovenous Fistulas - p. 3740.e1 648. Part 9. Cavernomas - p. 3748.e2 649. 459. Natural History of Cavernous Malformations - p. 3748.e2 650. 460. Genetics of Cerebral Cavernous Malformations - p. 3759.e3 651. 461. Microsurgery for Cerebral Cavernous Malformations - p. 3768.e6 652. Part 10. Arteriovenous Malformations and Fistulas of the Spine - p. 3778.e1 653. 462. Classification of Spinal Arteriovenous Lesions - p. 3778.e1 654. 463. Endovascular Treatment of Spinal Vascular Malformations - p. 3783.e1 655. 464. Microsurgical Treatment of Spinal Vascular Malformations - p. 3795.e3 656. Index - p. 3822.e4