Spinal disorders are a priority for healthcare systems internationally. Offering unparalleled, comprehensive coverage of the pathogenesis, evaluation and management of spinal disorders, Benzel’s Spine Surgery: Techniques, Complication Avoidance, and Management, 6th Edition, remains the definitive text in this challenging field. Written and edited by world-renowned experts, this two-volume masterwork covers everything a practicing spine surgeon, non-operative provider, and trainee needs to know—from fundamentals, biomechanics, applied anatomy, instrumentation, and pathophysiology of spinal disorders to all types of spine techniques, motion preservation strategies, non-surgical management, complication avoidance and management, and controversies. Nearly 200 fully revised, well-illustrated chapters keep you up to date with the latest advancements in spine surgery.
"This book is a must-have and a gold standard in textbooks on spine surgery…. Compared to other textbooks, the thoroughness, variety of information and resources, and in-depth expert discussion of topics is unique… 5 Stars!" —Doody's Review Service, review of the previous edition
1. Benzel’s Spine Surgery - p. i 2. Cover image - p. i 3. Title page - p. i 4. Table of Contents - p. i 5. Copyright - p. ii 6. Dedication - p. iii 7. List of Contributors - p. v 8. Preface - p. xix 9. Videos - p. xx 10. Volume 1 - p. V1 11. Fundamentals of the Spine - p. P1 12. Section 1.1 Implant Properties - p. P1 13. 1 History of Spine Surgery - p. 1 14. 2 History of Spine Biomechanics - p. 18 15. 3 History of Spinal Instrumentation: The Modern Era - p. 29 16. 4 Functional Anatomy of the Spine - p. 40 17. 5 Biomechanical Modeling of the Spine - p. 54 18. 6 The Intervertebral Disc: Anatomy, Physiology, and Aging - p. 61 19. 7 Muscles and the Spine: Dynamic Stabilization - p. 66 20. 8 Bone Physiology and Osteoporosis - p. 74 21. 9 Applied Anatomy of the Thoracolumbar Spine - p. 85 22. 10 Fundamentals of Spinal Alignment and Balance: Key Radiographic Measurements and a Practical Guide to Understanding Spinal Deformity and Alignment - p. 106 23. 11 Applied Anatomy of the Spinal Cord - p. 119 24. 12 Molecular and Anatomic Mechanisms of Nerve Root, Spinal Nerve, and Peripheral Nerve Injury - p. 131 25. 13 Spine Fusion: Biology and Biomechanics - p. 136 26. 14 Complications in Spine Surgery: Expected Rates and Classification - p. 144 27. Section 1.2 Biomechanics and Biology - p. 152.e2 28. 15 Osteointegration: The Bone and Implant Interface - p. 153 29. 16 Biomechanics and Implant Materials: The Anterior Column - p. 159 30. 17 Biomechanics and Implant Materials: The Posterior Column - p. 165 31. 18 Biomechanics of Motion Preservation Techniques - p. 171 32. 19 Biologic Response to Spinal Instrumentation Particulate Wear Debris–Emphasis on Implant Wear Degradation, and Breakage - p. 177 33. 20 Tribology and Material Contact Science in Spine Surgery: Implications for Implant Design - p. 185 34. Pathophysiology of Spinal Disorders - p. P2 35. Section 2.1 Pathophysiology of Congenital and Developmental Disorders - p. P2 36. 21 Spinal Cord Dysraphisms and Myelodysplasia - p. 192 37. 22 Congenital Spinal Deformity - p. 205 38. 23 Early-Onset Scoliosis - p. 224 39. 24 Late-Onset Idiopathic Scoliosis - p. 235 40. 25 Scheuermann Disease - p. 241 41. 26 Developmental Spondylolisthesis - p. 266 42. 27 Craniovertebral Junction and Atlantoaxial Alterations - p. 274 43. 28 Congenital and Developmental Deformities of the Cervical Spine - p. 287 44. 29 Dural and Meningeal Pathologies - p. 295 45. 30 Tarlov Cysts - p. 303 46. 31 Chiari Malformations and Syringomyelia - p. 310 47. Section 2.2 Pathophysiology of Degenerative Disorders - p. 317.e3 48. 32 Pathophysiology of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration and Pain - p. 318 49. 33 Pathophysiology of Cervical Spondylosis, Radiculopathy, and Myelopathy - p. 329 50. 34 Pathophysiology of Thoracic Spondylosis, Radiculopathy, and Myelopathy - p. 338 51. 35 Amyloid Deposition Syndromes - p. 347 52. Section 2.3 Deformity - p. 352.e2 53. 36 Deformity in the Cervical Spine - p. 353 54. 37 Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Management of Adult Degenerative Scoliosis - p. 360 55. 38 Surgical Treatment for Lumbar Spondylolisthesis - p. 369 56. Section 2.4 Pathophysiology of Traumatic Disorders - p. 373.e2 57. 39 Neuromuscular Disorders in the Pediatric Spine - p. 374 58. 40 Neuromuscular Disorders and Deformity in the Adult Spine - p. 383 59. 41 Occipitocervical Injuries - p. 392 60. 42 Subaxial Cervical Spine Injuries - p. 401 61. 43 Thoracic and Lumbar Spine Injuries - p. 416 62. 44 Peripheral Nerve Injury - p. 426 63. 45 Spinal Cord Injury - p. 441 64. 46 Spinal Injuries in Sports - p. 450 65. Section 2.5 Pathophysiology of Inflammatory and Infectious Disorders - p. 458.e3 66. 47 Rheumatoid Arthritis - p. 459 67. 48 Ankylosing Spondylitis and Other Disorders - p. 477 68. 49 Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament - p. 485 69. 50 Primary Infections of the Spine - p. 492 70. Spinal Infections - p. 492 71. Pyogenic Infections: Spondylodiscitis, Vertebral Osteomyelitis, and Epidural Abscess - p. 493 72. Epidemiology - p. 493 73. Etiology - p. 493 74. Pathophysiology - p. 493 75. Clinical Presentation and Course - p. 493 76. Diagnostic Modalities and Imaging - p. 493 77. Classification System - p. 495 78. Treatment - p. 495 79. Spinal Epidural Abscess - p. 502 80. Modic Changes and Subclinical Infections - p. 502 81. Clinical Outcome, Treatment Failure, and Relapse - p. 502 82. Tubercular Spondylodiscitis - p. 502 83. History and Background - p. 502 84. Epidemiology - p. 503 85. Etiopathogenesis - p. 503 86. Histopathology of Tubercular Lesions - p. 503 87. Pathogenesis of Deformity Progression in Adults versus Children - p. 504 88. Clinical Presentation - p. 504 89. Atypical Presentations - p. 506 90. Diagnostic Investigations - p. 506 91. Treatment - p. 507 92. Other Granulomatous Spinal Lesions - p. 514 93. Brucellosis - p. 514 94. Fungal Infections - p. 514 95. Conclusion - p. 515 96. 51 Secondary Infections of the Spine - p. 517 97. Section 2.6 Pathophysiology of Neoplastic Disorders - p. 521.e2 98. 52 Primary Tumors of the Spine - p. 522 99. 53 Metastatic Tumors of the Spine - p. 538 100. 54 Intradural Extramedullary Spine Tumors - p. 546 101. 55 Intramedullary Spinal Cord Lesions - p. 555 102. 56 Tumors of the Peripheral Nerve Including Brachial Plexus - p. 567 103. Section 2.7 Pathophysiology of Syndromic Disorders Affecting the Spine: Connective Tissue and Vascular - p. 572.e2 104. 57 Spinal Disorders Associated with Connective Tissue Disorders - p. 573 105. 58 Osteoporosis, Osteomalacia, and Metabolic Bone Disease - p. 581 106. 59 Vascular Malformations of the Spine - p. 594 107. Section 2.8 Pathophysiology of Postoperative Spinal Disorders - p. 604.e4 108. 60 Postoperative Spinal Disorders—Cervical - p. 605 109. 61 Postoperative Spinal Deformity - p. 611 110. 62 Adjacent Segment Degeneration and Disease of the Cervical Spine - p. 622 111. 63 Adjacent Segment Degeneration and Disease of the Lumbar Spine - p. 627 112. 64 Proximal and Distal Junctional Kyphosis and Failure - p. 633 113. Evaluation of Patients with Spinal Disorders - p. P3 114. 65 Physical and Neurological Examination - p. 640 115. 66 Sagittal Spinal Alignment: An Evolutionary Perspective - p. 649 116. 67 Spinal Alignment: Significance and Preoperative Planning - p. 659 117. 68 Overview of Imaging Procedures Available for Spinal Diagnosis - p. 664 118. 69 Electrodiagnostic Studies - p. 670 119. 70 Differential Diagnosis of Surgical Disorders of the Spine - p. 680 120. 71 Patient Selection for Spine Surgery: Preoperative Optimization - p. 698 121. 72 Evaluation of the Aging Patient - p. 704 122. 73 Preoperative Evaluation of Psychosocial Aspects and Work-Related Issues - p. 709 123. 74 Preoperative Evaluation of Patients with Tumors Affecting the Spine - p. 713 124. 75 Measuring Preoperative Health-Related Quality of Life: What Metrics Matter - p. 724 125. Volume 2 - p. V2 126. Management of Spinal Disorders - p. P4 127. Section 4.1 Nonoperative Approaches - p. P4 128. 76 Rehabilitation and Interventions in Management of Spinal Disorders - p. 729 129. 77 Spine Injections - p. 734 130. 78 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Back Pain - p. 753 131. 79 Regenerative Strategies and Intervertebral Disc Degeneration - p. 761 132. 80 Neuromodulation and Rehabilitative Interventions for the Spine - p. 765 133. 81 Pain Management: Opioids and Alternatives - p. 772 134. Section 4.2 Operative Management of Spinal Disorders: Overview and Principles - p. 775 135. 82 Fundamentals of Spine Surgery - p. 776 136. 83 Perioperative Management Protocols: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery - p. 780 137. 84 Surgical Incisions, Positioning, and Retraction - p. 788 138. 85 Intraoperative Imaging Protocols - p. 809 139. 86 Anesthesia for Spine Surgery and the Prevention of Complications - p. 818 140. 87 Intraoperative Neurophysiologic Monitoring in Routine and Complex Surgery - p. 837 141. 88 Perioperative Management of Blood Loss in Complex Spine Surgery - p. 846 142. 89 Intraoperative Crisis Management in Spine Surgery: What to Do When Things Go Bad - p. 857 143. 90 Biologics in Spine Fusion Surgery - p. 867 144. 91 Common Complications in Spine Surgery: Pseudarthrosis - p. 873 145. 92 Postoperative Medical Complications - p. 883 146. 93 Preventing Postoperative Infections: An Evidence-Based Approach - p. 889 147. 94 Neurological Complications of Common Spine Operations - p. 894 148. 95 Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak: Repair and Outcomes - p. 899 149. 96 Arachnoiditis and Syringomyelia - p. 904 150. 97 Posttraumatic and Idiopathic Syringomyelia - p. 909 151. 98 Vascular and Soft Tissue Complications - p. 914 152. 99 Thromboembolic Disease in Spine Surgery - p. 925 153. 100 Postoperative Spinal Deformities - p. 930 154. 101 Revision of Cervical Disk Arthroplasty - p. 939 155. 102 Readmissions and Reoperation in Spine Surgery: The Use of Predictive Analytics - p. 945 156. Section 4.3 Operative Management of Spinal Disoders: Occipital and Cervical - p. 950 157. 103 Cervical Spine Construct Design - p. 952 158. 104 Occipitocervical Spine Approaches for Decompression - p. 961 159. 105 Upper Cervical Screw Fixation Techniques - p. 972 160. 106 Endoscopic and Transnasal Approaches to the Craniocervical Junction - p. 986 161. 107 Cervical Spine and Cervicothoracic Junction—Posterior - p. 997 162. 108 Posterior Cervical Decompressions: Cervical Laminectomy and Laminoforaminotomy - p. 1007 163. 109 Cervical Laminoplasty - p. 1010 164. 110 Dorsal Subaxial Cervical Instrumentation Techniques - p. 1015 165. 111 Posterior Percutaneous and Minimally Invasive Approaches to Decompression and Arthrodesis of the Cervical Spine - p. 1022 166. 112 Cervical Spine and Cervicothoracic Junction—Anterior Approach - p. 1030 167. 113 Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Corpectomy - p. 1043 168. 114 Management of Soft Cervical Disc Herniation: Controversies and Complication Avoidance - p. 1054 169. 115 Anterior Subaxial Cervical Fixation and Fusion Techniques - p. 1058 170. 116 Cervical Total Disc Arthroplasty - p. 1064 171. 117 Combined Ventral-Dorsal Surgery - p. 1068 172. Section 4.4 Operative Management of Spinal Disorders: Thoracolumbar - p. 1072.e1 173. 118 Thoracic and Lumbar Spine Construct Design - p. 1073 174. 119 Posterior Approaches to the Thoracic Spine - p. 1082 175. 120 Anterior and Lateral Approaches to the Thoracic Spine - p. 1089 176. 121 Posterolateral Thoracolumbar Fusion - p. 1100 177. 122 Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion - p. 1105 178. 123 Posterior Thoracolumbar Fixation Techniques - p. 1116 179. 124 Midline Lumbar Interbody Fusion With Cortical-Bone-Trajectory Pedicle Screw Placement - p. 1130 180. 125 Dorsal Semirigid Stabilization - p. 1138 181. 126 Lumbar Total Disc Arthroplasty - p. 1148 182. 127 Minimally Invasive Spinal Decompression and Stabilization Techniques: Philosophy and Rationale - p. 1160 183. 128 Posterior Approaches to the Lumbar Spine: Minimally Invasive Decompression - p. 1169 184. 129 Endoscopic Approaches to the Cervical Spine - p. 1178 185. 130 Endoscopic Surgical Approaches to the Lumbar Spine - p. 1185 186. 131 Posterior Approaches to the Lumbar Spine: Minimally Invasive Fusion - p. 1193 187. 132 Anterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion - p. 1201 188. 133 Minimally Invasive Surgery Approaches: Anterior and Anterolateral Lumbar Spine Interbody Fusion - p. 1212 189. 134 Complex Lumbosacropelvic Fixation Techniques - p. 1224 190. 135 Spinopelvic Fixation for Posterior Pelvic and Lumbosacral Injuries - p. 1235 191. 136 Spinal Augmentation for Vertebral Compression Fractures - p. 1244 192. Operative Management of Specific Disorders of the Spine - p. P5 193. Section 5.1 Degenerative Pathologies - p. P5 194. 137 Indications for Spine Fusion for Axial Pain - p. 1250 195. 138 Cervical Disc Herniation - p. 1259 196. 139 Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy - p. 1266 197. 140 Lumbar Disc Herniation - p. 1272 198. 141 Thoracic Discectomy - p. 1277 199. 142 Degenerative Spondylolisthesis - p. 1285 200. 143 Spondylolysis and Low-Grade Spondylolisthesis - p. 1288 201. 144 Sacroiliac Joint Pain - p. 1295 202. Section 5.2 Spinal Deformity - p. 1302.e2 203. 145 Surgical Principles for Spinal Deformity - p. 1303 204. 146 An Approach for Treatment of Complex Adult Spinal Deformity - p. 1310 205. 147 Pediatric Spinal Deformity - p. 1318 206. 148 Cervicothoracic Deformity: The Role of Anterior Surgery - p. 1335 207. 149 The Role of Anterior Surgery for Thoracolumbar Deformity - p. 1344 208. 150 Anterior Column Realignment in Deformity - p. 1359 209. 151 Posterior-Based Osteotomies for Management of Spinal Deformity - p. 1364 210. 152 Minimally Invasive Approaches to Spinal Deformity - p. 1368 211. 153 Surgical Management of High-Grade Dysplastic Spondylolisthesis - p. 1376 212. 154 Failed Back Surgery Syndrome - p. 1387 213. Section 5.3 Tumors of the Spine - p. 1392 214. 155 Oncological Approaches and Outcomes for Primary Spine Tumors - p. 1393 215. 156 Staging, Classification, and Oncologic Approaches for Metastatic Tumors Involving the Spine - p. 1403 216. 157 Tumors at the Foramen Magnum and Craniocervical Junction - p. 1422 217. 158 Cervicothoracic Junction Tumors - p. 1436 218. 159 Thoracic and Thoracolumbar Spinal Tumors—Regional Challenges - p. 1442 219. 160 Sacral Tumors: Regional Challenges - p. 1459 220. 161 Radiosurgery for Spinal Tumors - p. 1471 221. Section 5.4 Trauma and the Spine - p. 1479.e4 222. 162 The Acute Management of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury and Polytrauma - p. 1480 223. 163 Timing of Surgery Following Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1485 224. 164 Medical Management of Adult and Pediatric Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1491 225. 165 Spinal Traction - p. 1501 226. 166 Medical Management of Fractures Without Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1507 227. 167 Anterior Surgery for Cervical Trauma - p. 1520 228. 168 Posterior Surgery for Cervical Trauma - p. 1533 229. 169 Surgical Approaches to Thoracolumbar Trauma - p. 1539 230. 170 Surgical Approaches for Sacral Fractures and Sacropelvic Injuries - p. 1557 231. 171 Rehabilitation and Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1564 232. 172 Regenerative Techniques of Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1581 233. Section 5.5 General Surgical Technique - p. 1585 234. 173 Harvest of Autograft for Spinal Fusion - p. 1586 235. 174 Vascularized Bone Grafts in Spine Surgery - p. 1593 236. 175 Navigation and Robotics in Spine Surgery - p. 1599 237. Evidence Development and Guidance of Informed Choice for Optimal Outcomes - p. P6 238. 176 Big Data in Healthcare - p. 1602 239. 177 Spine Registries - p. 1615 240. 178 Conflicts of Interest in Spine Surgery - p. 1621 241. 179 Art of the Clinical Trial - p. 1626 242. 180 Meaningful Retrospective Analysis - p. 1634 243. 181 Art and Science of Guideline Formation - p. 1638 244. 182 Appropriate Use Criteria in Spine Surgery - p. 1644 245. 183 Precision Medicine: Artificial Intelligence Applied to Evaluation and Management of Spinal Disorders - p. 1650 246. 184 Healthcare Reform and Spine Surgery: Economic Impact and the Shift to Value-Based Care - p. 1661 247. 185 Development of New Technologies in Spine Surgery - p. 1670
Spinal disorders are a priority for healthcare systems internationally. Offering unparalleled, comprehensive coverage of the pathogenesis, evaluation and management of spinal disorders, Benzel’s Spine Surgery: Techniques, Complication Avoidance, and Management, 6th Edition, remains the definitive text in this challenging field. Written and edited by world-renowned experts, this two-volume masterwork covers everything a practicing spine surgeon, non-operative provider, and trainee needs to know—from fundamentals, biomechanics, applied anatomy, instrumentation, and pathophysiology of spinal disorders to all types of spine techniques, motion preservation strategies, non-surgical management, complication avoidance and management, and controversies. Nearly 200 fully revised, well-illustrated chapters keep you up to date with the latest advancements in spine surgery.
"This book is a must-have and a gold standard in textbooks on spine surgery…. Compared to other textbooks, the thoroughness, variety of information and resources, and in-depth expert discussion of topics is unique… 5 Stars!" —Doody's Review Service, review of the previous edition
1. Benzel’s Spine Surgery - p. i 2. Cover image - p. i 3. Title page - p. i 4. Table of Contents - p. i 5. Copyright - p. ii 6. Dedication - p. iii 7. List of Contributors - p. v 8. Preface - p. xix 9. Videos - p. xx 10. Volume 1 - p. V1 11. Fundamentals of the Spine - p. P1 12. Section 1.1 Implant Properties - p. P1 13. 1 History of Spine Surgery - p. 1 14. 2 History of Spine Biomechanics - p. 18 15. 3 History of Spinal Instrumentation: The Modern Era - p. 29 16. 4 Functional Anatomy of the Spine - p. 40 17. 5 Biomechanical Modeling of the Spine - p. 54 18. 6 The Intervertebral Disc: Anatomy, Physiology, and Aging - p. 61 19. 7 Muscles and the Spine: Dynamic Stabilization - p. 66 20. 8 Bone Physiology and Osteoporosis - p. 74 21. 9 Applied Anatomy of the Thoracolumbar Spine - p. 85 22. 10 Fundamentals of Spinal Alignment and Balance: Key Radiographic Measurements and a Practical Guide to Understanding Spinal Deformity and Alignment - p. 106 23. 11 Applied Anatomy of the Spinal Cord - p. 119 24. 12 Molecular and Anatomic Mechanisms of Nerve Root, Spinal Nerve, and Peripheral Nerve Injury - p. 131 25. 13 Spine Fusion: Biology and Biomechanics - p. 136 26. 14 Complications in Spine Surgery: Expected Rates and Classification - p. 144 27. Section 1.2 Biomechanics and Biology - p. 152.e2 28. 15 Osteointegration: The Bone and Implant Interface - p. 153 29. 16 Biomechanics and Implant Materials: The Anterior Column - p. 159 30. 17 Biomechanics and Implant Materials: The Posterior Column - p. 165 31. 18 Biomechanics of Motion Preservation Techniques - p. 171 32. 19 Biologic Response to Spinal Instrumentation Particulate Wear Debris–Emphasis on Implant Wear Degradation, and Breakage - p. 177 33. 20 Tribology and Material Contact Science in Spine Surgery: Implications for Implant Design - p. 185 34. Pathophysiology of Spinal Disorders - p. P2 35. Section 2.1 Pathophysiology of Congenital and Developmental Disorders - p. P2 36. 21 Spinal Cord Dysraphisms and Myelodysplasia - p. 192 37. 22 Congenital Spinal Deformity - p. 205 38. 23 Early-Onset Scoliosis - p. 224 39. 24 Late-Onset Idiopathic Scoliosis - p. 235 40. 25 Scheuermann Disease - p. 241 41. 26 Developmental Spondylolisthesis - p. 266 42. 27 Craniovertebral Junction and Atlantoaxial Alterations - p. 274 43. 28 Congenital and Developmental Deformities of the Cervical Spine - p. 287 44. 29 Dural and Meningeal Pathologies - p. 295 45. 30 Tarlov Cysts - p. 303 46. 31 Chiari Malformations and Syringomyelia - p. 310 47. Section 2.2 Pathophysiology of Degenerative Disorders - p. 317.e3 48. 32 Pathophysiology of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration and Pain - p. 318 49. 33 Pathophysiology of Cervical Spondylosis, Radiculopathy, and Myelopathy - p. 329 50. 34 Pathophysiology of Thoracic Spondylosis, Radiculopathy, and Myelopathy - p. 338 51. 35 Amyloid Deposition Syndromes - p. 347 52. Section 2.3 Deformity - p. 352.e2 53. 36 Deformity in the Cervical Spine - p. 353 54. 37 Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Management of Adult Degenerative Scoliosis - p. 360 55. 38 Surgical Treatment for Lumbar Spondylolisthesis - p. 369 56. Section 2.4 Pathophysiology of Traumatic Disorders - p. 373.e2 57. 39 Neuromuscular Disorders in the Pediatric Spine - p. 374 58. 40 Neuromuscular Disorders and Deformity in the Adult Spine - p. 383 59. 41 Occipitocervical Injuries - p. 392 60. 42 Subaxial Cervical Spine Injuries - p. 401 61. 43 Thoracic and Lumbar Spine Injuries - p. 416 62. 44 Peripheral Nerve Injury - p. 426 63. 45 Spinal Cord Injury - p. 441 64. 46 Spinal Injuries in Sports - p. 450 65. Section 2.5 Pathophysiology of Inflammatory and Infectious Disorders - p. 458.e3 66. 47 Rheumatoid Arthritis - p. 459 67. 48 Ankylosing Spondylitis and Other Disorders - p. 477 68. 49 Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament - p. 485 69. 50 Primary Infections of the Spine - p. 492 70. Spinal Infections - p. 492 71. Pyogenic Infections: Spondylodiscitis, Vertebral Osteomyelitis, and Epidural Abscess - p. 493 72. Epidemiology - p. 493 73. Etiology - p. 493 74. Pathophysiology - p. 493 75. Clinical Presentation and Course - p. 493 76. Diagnostic Modalities and Imaging - p. 493 77. Classification System - p. 495 78. Treatment - p. 495 79. Spinal Epidural Abscess - p. 502 80. Modic Changes and Subclinical Infections - p. 502 81. Clinical Outcome, Treatment Failure, and Relapse - p. 502 82. Tubercular Spondylodiscitis - p. 502 83. History and Background - p. 502 84. Epidemiology - p. 503 85. Etiopathogenesis - p. 503 86. Histopathology of Tubercular Lesions - p. 503 87. Pathogenesis of Deformity Progression in Adults versus Children - p. 504 88. Clinical Presentation - p. 504 89. Atypical Presentations - p. 506 90. Diagnostic Investigations - p. 506 91. Treatment - p. 507 92. Other Granulomatous Spinal Lesions - p. 514 93. Brucellosis - p. 514 94. Fungal Infections - p. 514 95. Conclusion - p. 515 96. 51 Secondary Infections of the Spine - p. 517 97. Section 2.6 Pathophysiology of Neoplastic Disorders - p. 521.e2 98. 52 Primary Tumors of the Spine - p. 522 99. 53 Metastatic Tumors of the Spine - p. 538 100. 54 Intradural Extramedullary Spine Tumors - p. 546 101. 55 Intramedullary Spinal Cord Lesions - p. 555 102. 56 Tumors of the Peripheral Nerve Including Brachial Plexus - p. 567 103. Section 2.7 Pathophysiology of Syndromic Disorders Affecting the Spine: Connective Tissue and Vascular - p. 572.e2 104. 57 Spinal Disorders Associated with Connective Tissue Disorders - p. 573 105. 58 Osteoporosis, Osteomalacia, and Metabolic Bone Disease - p. 581 106. 59 Vascular Malformations of the Spine - p. 594 107. Section 2.8 Pathophysiology of Postoperative Spinal Disorders - p. 604.e4 108. 60 Postoperative Spinal Disorders—Cervical - p. 605 109. 61 Postoperative Spinal Deformity - p. 611 110. 62 Adjacent Segment Degeneration and Disease of the Cervical Spine - p. 622 111. 63 Adjacent Segment Degeneration and Disease of the Lumbar Spine - p. 627 112. 64 Proximal and Distal Junctional Kyphosis and Failure - p. 633 113. Evaluation of Patients with Spinal Disorders - p. P3 114. 65 Physical and Neurological Examination - p. 640 115. 66 Sagittal Spinal Alignment: An Evolutionary Perspective - p. 649 116. 67 Spinal Alignment: Significance and Preoperative Planning - p. 659 117. 68 Overview of Imaging Procedures Available for Spinal Diagnosis - p. 664 118. 69 Electrodiagnostic Studies - p. 670 119. 70 Differential Diagnosis of Surgical Disorders of the Spine - p. 680 120. 71 Patient Selection for Spine Surgery: Preoperative Optimization - p. 698 121. 72 Evaluation of the Aging Patient - p. 704 122. 73 Preoperative Evaluation of Psychosocial Aspects and Work-Related Issues - p. 709 123. 74 Preoperative Evaluation of Patients with Tumors Affecting the Spine - p. 713 124. 75 Measuring Preoperative Health-Related Quality of Life: What Metrics Matter - p. 724 125. Volume 2 - p. V2 126. Management of Spinal Disorders - p. P4 127. Section 4.1 Nonoperative Approaches - p. P4 128. 76 Rehabilitation and Interventions in Management of Spinal Disorders - p. 729 129. 77 Spine Injections - p. 734 130. 78 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Back Pain - p. 753 131. 79 Regenerative Strategies and Intervertebral Disc Degeneration - p. 761 132. 80 Neuromodulation and Rehabilitative Interventions for the Spine - p. 765 133. 81 Pain Management: Opioids and Alternatives - p. 772 134. Section 4.2 Operative Management of Spinal Disorders: Overview and Principles - p. 775 135. 82 Fundamentals of Spine Surgery - p. 776 136. 83 Perioperative Management Protocols: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery - p. 780 137. 84 Surgical Incisions, Positioning, and Retraction - p. 788 138. 85 Intraoperative Imaging Protocols - p. 809 139. 86 Anesthesia for Spine Surgery and the Prevention of Complications - p. 818 140. 87 Intraoperative Neurophysiologic Monitoring in Routine and Complex Surgery - p. 837 141. 88 Perioperative Management of Blood Loss in Complex Spine Surgery - p. 846 142. 89 Intraoperative Crisis Management in Spine Surgery: What to Do When Things Go Bad - p. 857 143. 90 Biologics in Spine Fusion Surgery - p. 867 144. 91 Common Complications in Spine Surgery: Pseudarthrosis - p. 873 145. 92 Postoperative Medical Complications - p. 883 146. 93 Preventing Postoperative Infections: An Evidence-Based Approach - p. 889 147. 94 Neurological Complications of Common Spine Operations - p. 894 148. 95 Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak: Repair and Outcomes - p. 899 149. 96 Arachnoiditis and Syringomyelia - p. 904 150. 97 Posttraumatic and Idiopathic Syringomyelia - p. 909 151. 98 Vascular and Soft Tissue Complications - p. 914 152. 99 Thromboembolic Disease in Spine Surgery - p. 925 153. 100 Postoperative Spinal Deformities - p. 930 154. 101 Revision of Cervical Disk Arthroplasty - p. 939 155. 102 Readmissions and Reoperation in Spine Surgery: The Use of Predictive Analytics - p. 945 156. Section 4.3 Operative Management of Spinal Disoders: Occipital and Cervical - p. 950 157. 103 Cervical Spine Construct Design - p. 952 158. 104 Occipitocervical Spine Approaches for Decompression - p. 961 159. 105 Upper Cervical Screw Fixation Techniques - p. 972 160. 106 Endoscopic and Transnasal Approaches to the Craniocervical Junction - p. 986 161. 107 Cervical Spine and Cervicothoracic Junction—Posterior - p. 997 162. 108 Posterior Cervical Decompressions: Cervical Laminectomy and Laminoforaminotomy - p. 1007 163. 109 Cervical Laminoplasty - p. 1010 164. 110 Dorsal Subaxial Cervical Instrumentation Techniques - p. 1015 165. 111 Posterior Percutaneous and Minimally Invasive Approaches to Decompression and Arthrodesis of the Cervical Spine - p. 1022 166. 112 Cervical Spine and Cervicothoracic Junction—Anterior Approach - p. 1030 167. 113 Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Corpectomy - p. 1043 168. 114 Management of Soft Cervical Disc Herniation: Controversies and Complication Avoidance - p. 1054 169. 115 Anterior Subaxial Cervical Fixation and Fusion Techniques - p. 1058 170. 116 Cervical Total Disc Arthroplasty - p. 1064 171. 117 Combined Ventral-Dorsal Surgery - p. 1068 172. Section 4.4 Operative Management of Spinal Disorders: Thoracolumbar - p. 1072.e1 173. 118 Thoracic and Lumbar Spine Construct Design - p. 1073 174. 119 Posterior Approaches to the Thoracic Spine - p. 1082 175. 120 Anterior and Lateral Approaches to the Thoracic Spine - p. 1089 176. 121 Posterolateral Thoracolumbar Fusion - p. 1100 177. 122 Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion - p. 1105 178. 123 Posterior Thoracolumbar Fixation Techniques - p. 1116 179. 124 Midline Lumbar Interbody Fusion With Cortical-Bone-Trajectory Pedicle Screw Placement - p. 1130 180. 125 Dorsal Semirigid Stabilization - p. 1138 181. 126 Lumbar Total Disc Arthroplasty - p. 1148 182. 127 Minimally Invasive Spinal Decompression and Stabilization Techniques: Philosophy and Rationale - p. 1160 183. 128 Posterior Approaches to the Lumbar Spine: Minimally Invasive Decompression - p. 1169 184. 129 Endoscopic Approaches to the Cervical Spine - p. 1178 185. 130 Endoscopic Surgical Approaches to the Lumbar Spine - p. 1185 186. 131 Posterior Approaches to the Lumbar Spine: Minimally Invasive Fusion - p. 1193 187. 132 Anterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion - p. 1201 188. 133 Minimally Invasive Surgery Approaches: Anterior and Anterolateral Lumbar Spine Interbody Fusion - p. 1212 189. 134 Complex Lumbosacropelvic Fixation Techniques - p. 1224 190. 135 Spinopelvic Fixation for Posterior Pelvic and Lumbosacral Injuries - p. 1235 191. 136 Spinal Augmentation for Vertebral Compression Fractures - p. 1244 192. Operative Management of Specific Disorders of the Spine - p. P5 193. Section 5.1 Degenerative Pathologies - p. P5 194. 137 Indications for Spine Fusion for Axial Pain - p. 1250 195. 138 Cervical Disc Herniation - p. 1259 196. 139 Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy - p. 1266 197. 140 Lumbar Disc Herniation - p. 1272 198. 141 Thoracic Discectomy - p. 1277 199. 142 Degenerative Spondylolisthesis - p. 1285 200. 143 Spondylolysis and Low-Grade Spondylolisthesis - p. 1288 201. 144 Sacroiliac Joint Pain - p. 1295 202. Section 5.2 Spinal Deformity - p. 1302.e2 203. 145 Surgical Principles for Spinal Deformity - p. 1303 204. 146 An Approach for Treatment of Complex Adult Spinal Deformity - p. 1310 205. 147 Pediatric Spinal Deformity - p. 1318 206. 148 Cervicothoracic Deformity: The Role of Anterior Surgery - p. 1335 207. 149 The Role of Anterior Surgery for Thoracolumbar Deformity - p. 1344 208. 150 Anterior Column Realignment in Deformity - p. 1359 209. 151 Posterior-Based Osteotomies for Management of Spinal Deformity - p. 1364 210. 152 Minimally Invasive Approaches to Spinal Deformity - p. 1368 211. 153 Surgical Management of High-Grade Dysplastic Spondylolisthesis - p. 1376 212. 154 Failed Back Surgery Syndrome - p. 1387 213. Section 5.3 Tumors of the Spine - p. 1392 214. 155 Oncological Approaches and Outcomes for Primary Spine Tumors - p. 1393 215. 156 Staging, Classification, and Oncologic Approaches for Metastatic Tumors Involving the Spine - p. 1403 216. 157 Tumors at the Foramen Magnum and Craniocervical Junction - p. 1422 217. 158 Cervicothoracic Junction Tumors - p. 1436 218. 159 Thoracic and Thoracolumbar Spinal Tumors—Regional Challenges - p. 1442 219. 160 Sacral Tumors: Regional Challenges - p. 1459 220. 161 Radiosurgery for Spinal Tumors - p. 1471 221. Section 5.4 Trauma and the Spine - p. 1479.e4 222. 162 The Acute Management of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury and Polytrauma - p. 1480 223. 163 Timing of Surgery Following Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1485 224. 164 Medical Management of Adult and Pediatric Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1491 225. 165 Spinal Traction - p. 1501 226. 166 Medical Management of Fractures Without Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1507 227. 167 Anterior Surgery for Cervical Trauma - p. 1520 228. 168 Posterior Surgery for Cervical Trauma - p. 1533 229. 169 Surgical Approaches to Thoracolumbar Trauma - p. 1539 230. 170 Surgical Approaches for Sacral Fractures and Sacropelvic Injuries - p. 1557 231. 171 Rehabilitation and Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1564 232. 172 Regenerative Techniques of Spinal Cord Injury - p. 1581 233. Section 5.5 General Surgical Technique - p. 1585 234. 173 Harvest of Autograft for Spinal Fusion - p. 1586 235. 174 Vascularized Bone Grafts in Spine Surgery - p. 1593 236. 175 Navigation and Robotics in Spine Surgery - p. 1599 237. Evidence Development and Guidance of Informed Choice for Optimal Outcomes - p. P6 238. 176 Big Data in Healthcare - p. 1602 239. 177 Spine Registries - p. 1615 240. 178 Conflicts of Interest in Spine Surgery - p. 1621 241. 179 Art of the Clinical Trial - p. 1626 242. 180 Meaningful Retrospective Analysis - p. 1634 243. 181 Art and Science of Guideline Formation - p. 1638 244. 182 Appropriate Use Criteria in Spine Surgery - p. 1644 245. 183 Precision Medicine: Artificial Intelligence Applied to Evaluation and Management of Spinal Disorders - p. 1650 246. 184 Healthcare Reform and Spine Surgery: Economic Impact and the Shift to Value-Based Care - p. 1661 247. 185 Development of New Technologies in Spine Surgery - p. 1670
