Encyclopedia of Virology, Fourth Edition, Five Volume Set builds on the solid foundation laid by the previous editions, expanding its reach with new and timely topics. In five volumes, the work provides comprehensive coverage of the whole virosphere, making this a unique resource. Content explores viruses present in the environment and the pathogenic viruses of humans, animals, plants and microorganisms. Key areas and concepts concerning virus classification, structure, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and prevention are discussed, guiding the reader through chapters that are presented at an accessible level, and include further readings for those needing more specific information. More than ever now, with the Covid19 pandemic, we are seeing the huge impact viruses have on our life and society. This encyclopedia is a must-have resource for scientists and practitioners, and a great source of information for the wider public.
1. Antiviral Innate Immunity: Introduction - p. 648 2. Humoral and T Cell-Mediated Immunity to Viruses - p. 655 3. Antigenicity and Antigenic Variation - p. 660 4. Antigen Presentation - p. 666 5. Defense Against Viruses and Other Genetic Parasites in Prokaryotes - p. 669 6. Defective-Interfering Viruses - p. 670 7. Ecology and Global Impacts of Viruses - p. 675 8. The Role of Retroviruses in Cellular Evolution - p. 680 9. The Role of Bacteriophages in Bacterial Evolution - p. 688 10. Viruses and Their Potential for Bioterrorism - p. 703 11. The Use of Viral Promoters in Expression Vectors - p. 713 12. Oncolytic Viruses - p. 724 13. Biotechnology Approaches to Modern Vaccine Design - p. 728 14. Viruses: Impact on Science and Society - p. 740 15. Adenoviruses (Adenoviridae) - p. 750 16. African Horse Sickness Virus (Reoviridae) - p. 755 17. African Swine Fever Virus (Asfarviridae) - p. 759 18. Akabane Virus and Schmallenberg Virus (Peribunyaviridae) - p. 764 19. Alphaviruses Causing Encephalitis (Togaviridae) - p. 771 20. Anelloviruses (Anelloviridae) - p. 782 21. Animal Lentiviruses (Retroviridae) - p. 790 22. Animal Morbilliviruses (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 798 23. Animal Papillomaviruses (Papillomaviridae) - p. 805 24. Astroviruses (Astroviridae) - p. 821 25. Avian Hepadnaviruses (Hepadnaviridae) - p. 830 26. Avian Herpesviruses (Herpesviridae) - p. 838 27. Avian Influenza Viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 844 28. Avian Leukosis and Sarcoma Viruses (Retroviridae) - p. 850 29. Bluetongue Virus (Reoviridae) - p. 855 30. Borna Disease Virus and Related Bornaviruses (Bornaviridae) - p. 860 31. Bovine Leukemia Virus (Retroviridae) - p. 866 32. Bovine Viral Diarrhea, Border Disease, and Classical Swine Fever Viruses (Flaviviridae) - p. 874 33. Capripoxviruses, Parapoxviruses, and Other Poxviruses of Ruminants (Poxviridae) - p. 886 34. Chikungunya Virus (Togaviridae) - p. 894 35. Circoviruses (Circoviridae) - p. 905 36. Coronaviruses: General Features (Coronaviridae) - p. 913 37. Coronaviruses: Molecular Biology (Coronaviridae) - p. 920 38. Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus and Nairoviruses of Medical Importance (Nairoviridae) - p. 931 39. Dengue Viruses (Flaviviridae) - p. 940 40. Ebola Virus (Filoviridae) - p. 957 41. Enteroviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 962 42. Enveloped, Positive-Strand RNA Viruses (Nidovirales) - p. 974 43. Epstein–Barr Virus (Herpesviridae) - p. 981 44. Equine Herpesviruses (Herpesviridae) - p. 994 45. Equine, Canine, and Swine Influenza (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 998 46. Feline Calicivirus (Caliciviridae) - p. 1006 47. Feline Leukemia and Sarcoma Viruses (Retroviridae) - p. 1014 48. Fish and Amphibian Alloherpesviruses (Herpesviridae) - p. 1018 49. Fish Retroviruses (Retroviridae) - p. 1020 50. Fish Rhabdoviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 1032 51. Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1037 52. Fowlpox Virus and Other Avipoxviruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1053 53. Hantaviruses (Hantaviridae) - p. 1058 54. Henipaviruses (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1064 55. Hepatitis A Virus (Picornaviridae) - p. 1071 56. Hepatitis B Virus (Hepadnaviridae) - p. 1076 57. Hepatitis C Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1087 58. Hepeviruses (Hepeviridae) - p. 1100 59. Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2 (Herpesviridae) - p. 1102 60. History of Virology: Vertebrate Viruses - p. 1113 61. Human Boca- and Protoparvoviruses (Parvoviridae) - p. 1117 62. Human Coronavirus-229E, -OC43, -NL63, and -HKU1 (Coronaviridae) - p. 1126 63. Human Cytomegalovirus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1136 64. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (Retroviridae) - p. 1150 65. Human Metapneumovirus (Pneumoviridae) - p. 1164 66. Human Norovirus and Sapovirus (Caliciviridae) - p. 1170 67. Human Papillomaviruses (Papillomaviridae) - p. 1180 68. Human Parainfluenza Viruses (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1190 69. Human Pathogenic Arenaviruses (Arenaviridae) - p. 1195 70. Human Polyomaviruses (Papillomaviridae) - p. 1204 71. Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus-1 and -2 (Retroviridae) - p. 1215 72. Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (Birnaviridae) - p. 1227 73. Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (Birnaviridae) - p. 1233 74. Influenza A Viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 1235 75. Influenza B, C and D Viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 1248 76. Jaagsiekte Sheep Retrovirus (Retroviridae) - p. 1255 77. Japanese Encephalitis Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1267 78. Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1284 79. Marburg and Ravn Viruses (Filoviridae) - p. 1293 80. Measles Virus (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1300 81. Molluscum Contagiosum Virus (Poxviridae) - p. 1312 82. Mumps Virus (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1320 83. Murine Leukemia and Sarcoma Viruses (Retroviridae) - p. 1331 84. Newcastle Disease Virus (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1337 85. Orthobunyaviruses (Peribunyaviridae) - p. 1344 86. Parapoxviruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1347 87. Parechoviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1356 88. Parvoviruses of Carnivores, and the Emergence of Canine Parvovirus (Parvoviridae) - p. 1365 89. Polioviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1372 90. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus and Equine Arteritis Virus (Arteriviridae) - p. 1379 91. Prions of Vertebrates - p. 1383 92. Pseudorabies Virus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1392 93. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus and European Brown Hare Syndrome Virus (Caliciviridae) - p. 1399 94. Rabbit Myxoma Virus and the Fibroma Viruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1408 95. Rabies and Other Lyssaviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 1416 96. Respiratory Syncytial Virus (Pneumoviridae) - p. 1424 97. Rhinoviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1436 98. Rift Valley Fever Virus and Other Phleboviruses (Phenuiviridae) - p. 1442 99. Roseoloviruses: Human Herpesviruses 6A, 6B and 7 (Herpesviridae) - p. 1447 100. Rotaviruses (Reoviridae) - p. 1451 101. Rubella Virus (Picornaviridae) - p. 1459 102. Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1465 103. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) (Coronaviridae) - p. 1476 104. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (Coronaviridae) - p. 1482 105. Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) and HIV-2 (Retroviridae) - p. 1484 106. Sindbis Virus (Togaviridae) - p. 1491 107. Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1498 108. Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus of Pigs and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (Coronaviridae) - p. 1507 109. Vaccinia Virus (Poxviridae) - p. 1511 110. Varicella-Zoster Virus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1517 111. Variola and Monkeypox Viruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1526 112. Vesicular Stomatitis Virus and Bovine Ephemeral Fever Virus (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 1537 113. West Nile Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1548 114. Yellow Fever Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1556 115. Zika Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1566 116. An Introduction to Plant Viruses - p. 1581 117. Emerging and Re-Emerging Plant Viruses - p. 1585 118. Emerging Geminiviruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 1594 119. Movement of Viruses in Plants - p. 1609 120. Plant Antiviral Defense: Gene-Silencing Pathways - p. 1621 121. Plant Resistance to Viruses: Engineered Resistance - p. 1631 122. Plant Resistance to Viruses: Natural Resistance Associated With Dominant Genes - p. 1636 123. Plant Resistance to Viruses: Natural Resistance Associated With Recessive Genes - p. 1638 124. Plant Viral Diseases: Economic Implications - p. 1642 125. Retrotransposons of Plants - p. 1643 126. Vector Transmission of Plant Viruses - p. 1652 127. Viral Suppressors of Gene Silencing - p. 1659 128. Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) - p. 1664 129. Alfalfa Mosaic Virus (Bromoviridae) - p. 1671 130. Alphaflexiviruses (Alphaflexiviridae) - p. 1683 131. Alphasatellites (Alphasatellitidae) - p. 1689 132. Amalgaviruses (Amalgaviridae) - p. 1695 133. Badnaviruses (Caulimoviridae) - p. 1698 134. Banana Bunchy Top Virus (Nanoviridae) - p. 1703 135. Barley Yellow Dwarf Viruses (Luteoviridae) - p. 1714 136. Bean Common Mosaic Virus and Bean Common Mosaic Necrosis Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 1720 137. Bean Golden Mosaic Virus and Bean Golden Yellow Mosaic Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 1729 138. Beet Curly Top Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 1738 139. Beet Necrotic Yellow Vein Virus (Benyviridae) - p. 1745 140. Benyviruses (Benyviridae) - p. 1752 141. Betaflexiviruses (Betaflexiviridae) - p. 1757 142. Betasatellites and Deltasatelliles (Tolecusatellitidae) - p. 1762 143. Bluner-, Cile-, and Higreviruses (Kitaviridae) - p. 1771 144. Brome Mosaic Virus (Bromoviridae) - p. 1773 145. Bromoviruses (Bromoviridae) - p. 1782 146. Bymoviruses (Potyviridae) - p. 1783 147. Cacao Swollen Shoot Virus (Caulimoviridae) - p. 1792 148. Carmo-Like Viruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 1801 149. Cassava Brown Streak Viruses (Potyviridae) - p. 1805 150. Cassava Mosaic Viruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 1815 151. Caulimoviruses (Caulimoviridae) - p. 1821 152. Cheraviruses, Sadwaviruses and Torradoviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 1826 153. Citrus Tristeza Virus (Closteroviridae) - p. 1829 154. Closteroviruses (Closteroviridae) - p. 1836 155. Comoviruses and Fabaviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 1844 156. Cotton Leaf Curl Disease (Geminiviridae) - p. 1848 157. Cowpea Mosaic Virus (Secoviridae) - p. 1859 158. Cucumber Mosaic Virus (Bromoviridae) - p. 1868 159. Dianthovirus (Tombusviridae) - p. 1876 160. Endornaviruses (Endornaviridae) - p. 1878 161. Fimoviruses (Fimoviridae) - p. 1886 162. Furoviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 1892 163. Geminiviruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 1895 164. Hordeiviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 1901 165. Idaeoviruses (Mayoviridae) - p. 1912 166. Ilarviruses (Bromoviridae) - p. 1924 167. Luteoviruses (Luteoviridae) - p. 1933 168. Machlomovirus and Panicoviruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 1939 169. Maize Streak Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 1942 170. Nanoviruses (Nanoviridae) - p. 1954 171. Necro-Like Viruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 1965 172. Nepoviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 1971 173. Ophioviruses (Aspiviridae) - p. 1972 174. Orthotospoviruses (Tospoviridae) - p. 1983 175. Ourmiaviruses (Botourmiaviridae) - p. 1985 176. Papaya Ringspot Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 1990 177. Pecluviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 1999 178. Pepino Mosaic Virus (Alphaflexiviridae) - p. 2008 179. Plant Reoviruses (Reoviridae) - p. 2016 180. Plant Resistance to Geminiviruses - p. 2022 181. Plant Rhabdoviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 2034 182. Plant Satellite Viruses (Albetovirus, Aumaivirus, Papanivirus, Virtovirus) - p. 2036 183. Plum Pox Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 2038 184. Poleroviruses (Luteoviridae) - p. 2048 185. Pomoviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2054 186. Potato Virus Y (Potyviridae) - p. 2063 187. Potexviruses (Alphaflexiviridae) - p. 2074 188. Potyviruses (Potyviridae) - p. 2081 189. Quinviruses (Betaflexiviridae) - p. 2088 190. Reverse-Transcribing Viruses (Belpaoviridae, Metaviridae, and Pseudoviridae) - p. 2098 191. Rice Tungro Disease (Secoviridae, Caulimoviridae) - p. 2105 192. Rice Yellow Mottle Virus (Solemoviridae) - p. 2117 193. Satellite Nucleic Acids and Viruses - p. 2124 194. Secoviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 2126 195. Sequiviruses and Waikaviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 2134 196. Solemoviruses (Solemoviridae) - p. 2142 197. Tenuiviruses (Phenuiviridae) - p. 2151 198. Tobacco Mosaic Virus (Virgaviridae) - p. 2158 199. Tobamoviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2166 200. Tobraviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2168 201. Tomato Leaf Curl New Delhi Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 2176 202. Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (Tospoviridae) - p. 2184 203. Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Viruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 2193 204. Tombusvirus-Like Viruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 2198 205. Tombusviruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 2212 206. Tritimoviruses and Rymoviruses (Potyviridae) - p. 2217 207. Triviruses (Betaflexiviridae) - p. 2222 208. Tymoviruses (Tymoviridae) - p. 2232 209. Umbraviruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 2236 210. Varicosaviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 2243 211. Virgaviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2252 212. Viroids (Pospiviroidae and Avsunviroidae) - p. 2257 213. Watermelon Mosaic Virus and Zucchini Yellow Mosaic Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 2263 214. Abstract - p. 2263 215. Glossary - p. 2263 216. History and Taxonomy - p. 2263 217. Classification - p. 2263 218. Symptomatology - p. 2264 219. Synergism and Antagonism - p. 2264 220. Geographic Distribution - p. 2264 221. Host Range - p. 2265 222. Diagnostic Methods - p. 2265 223. Vector Relationships - p. 2265 224. Epidemiology - p. 2265 225. Control Methods - p. 2266 226. Variability - p. 2267 227. Genetics and Evolution - p. 2268 228. Biotechnological Application - p. 2268 229. Further Reading - p. 2268 230. Bacterial Viruses - p. 2276 231. History of Virology: Bacteriophages - p. 2277 232. Icosahedral Phages – Single-Stranded DNA (φX174) - p. 2283 233. Single-Stranded RNA Bacterial Viruses - p. 2296 234. Enveloped Icosahedral Phages – Double-Stranded RNA (φ6) - p. 2304 235. Membrane-Containing Icosahedral DNA Bacteriophages - p. 2311 236. Tailed Double-Stranded DNA Phages - p. 2319 237. Helical and Filamentous Phages - p. 2323 238. Replication of Bacillus Double-Stranded DNA Bacteriophages - p. 2333 239. Lytic Transcription - p. 2338 240. Lysogeny - p. 2348 241. Decision Making by Temperate Phages - p. 2360 242. Mobilization of Phage Satellites - p. 2376 243. Portal Vertex - p. 2385 244. Prohead, the Head Shell Pre-Cursor - p. 2390 245. Enzymology of Viral DNA Packaging Machines - p. 2398 246. DNA Packaging: DNA Recognition - p. 2415 247. DNA Packaging: The Translocation Motor - p. 2430 248. Biophysics of DNA Packaging - p. 2447 249. Energetics of the DNA-Filled Head - p. 2456 250. Bacteriophage Receptor Proteins of Gram-Negative Bacteria - p. 2466 251. Tail Structure and Dynamics - p. 2469 252. Bacteriophage Tail Fibres, Tailspikes, and Bacterial Receptor Interaction - p. 2480 253. Phage Genome and Protein Ejection In Vivo - p. 2496 254. Dealing With the Whole Head: Diversity and Function of Capsid Ejection Proteins in Tailed Phages - p. 2514 255. Jumbo Phages - p. 2526 256. CRISPR-Cas Systems and Anti-CRISPR Proteins: Adaptive Defense and Counter-Defense in Prokaryotes and Their Viruses - p. 2531 257. Bacteriophage: Therapeutics and Diagnostics Development - p. 2535 258. Bacteriophage Vaccines - p. 2540 259. Bacteriophage Diversity - p. 2548 260. Genetic Mosaicism in the Tailed Double-Stranded DNA Phages - p. 2560 261. Bacteriophages of the Human Microbiome - p. 2567 262. Bacteriophage: Red Recombination System and the Development of Recombineering Technologies - p. 2579 263. Nanotechnology Application of Bacteriophage DNA Packaging Nanomotors - p. 2593 264. General Ecology of Bacteriophages - p. 2608 265. Marine Bacteriophages - p. 2618 266. Ecology of Phages in Extreme Environments - p. 2634 267. Archaeal Viruses - p. 2643 268. Diversity of Hyperthermophilic Archaeal Viruses - p. 2644 269. Euryarchaeal Viruses - p. 2650 270. Vesicle-Like Archaeal Viruses - p. 2658 271. Virus–Host Interactions in Archaea - p. 2663 272. Antiviral Defense Mechanisms in Archaea - p. 2676 273. Discovery of Archaeal Viruses in Hot Spring Environments Using Viral Metagenomics - p. 2686 274. Metagenomes of Archaeal Viruses in Hypersaline Environments - p. 2693 275. Extreme Environments as a Model System to Study How Virus–Host Interactions Evolve Along the Symbiosis Continuum - p. 2699 276. Fungal Viruses - p. 2714 277. An Introduction to Fungal Viruses - p. 2715 278. Cross-Kingdom Virus Infection - p. 2718 279. Diversity of Mycoviruses in Aspergilli - p. 2726 280. Evolution of Mycoviruses - p. 2730 281. Mixed Infections of Mycoviruses in Phytopathogenic Fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum - p. 2734 282. Mycovirus-Mediated Biological Control - p. 2737 283. Mycoviruses With Filamentous Particles - p. 2741 284. Prions of Yeast and Fungi - p. 2746 285. Single-Stranded DNA Mycoviruses - p. 2750 286. Structure of Double-Stranded RNA Mycoviruses - p. 2766 287. Ustilago maydis Viruses and Their Killer Toxins - p. 2778 288. Vegetative Incompatibility in Filamentous Fungi - p. 2787 289. Viral Diseases of Agaricus bisporus, the Button Mushroom - p. 2797 290. Viral Killer Toxins - p. 2801 291. Alternaviruses (Unassigned) - p. 2809 292. Barnaviruses (Barnaviridae) - p. 2810 293. Botybirnaviruses (Botybirnavirus) - p. 2816 294. Chrysoviruses (Chrysoviridae) - General Features and Chrysovirus-Related Viruses - p. 2821 295. Fungal Partitiviruses (Partitiviridae) - p. 2830 296. Fusariviruses (Unassigned) - p. 2837 297. Giardiavirus (Totiviridae) - p. 2840 298. Hypoviruses (Hypoviridae) - p. 2847 299. Megabirnaviruses (Megabirnaviridae) - p. 2854 300. Mitoviruses (Mitoviridae) - p. 2864 301. Mycoreoviruses (Reoviridae) - p. 2871 302. Mymonaviruses (Mymonaviridae) - p. 2881 303. Narnaviruses (Narnaviridae) - p. 2886 304. Phlegiviruses (Unassigned) - p. 2895 305. Plant and Protozoal Partitiviruses (Partitiviridae) - p. 2902 306. Quadriviruses (Quadriviridae) - p. 2912 307. Totiviruses (Totiviridae) - p. 2922 308. Yado-kari Virus 1 and Yado-nushi Virus 1 (Unassigned) - p. 2938 309. Yeast L-A Virus (Totiviridae) - p. 2947 310. Algal Viruses - p. 2955 311. Algal Marnaviruses (Marnaviridae) - p. 2956 312. Algal Mimiviruses (Mimiviridae) - p. 2957 313. Miscellaneous Algal Viruses (Alvernaviridae, Bacilladnaviridae, Dinodnavirus, Reoviridae) - p. 2960 314. Phycodnaviruses (Phycodnaviridae) - p. 2965 315. Invertebrate Viruses - p. 2968 316. An Introduction to Viruses of Invertebrates - p. 2969 317. Ascoviruses (Ascoviridae) - p. 2986 318. Baculovirus–Host Interactions: Repurposing Host-Acquired Genes (Baculoviridae) - p. 2991 319. Baculoviruses: General Features (Baculoviridae) - p. 2998 320. Baculoviruses: Molecular Biology and Replication (Baculoviridae) - p. 3008 321. Bidensoviruses (Bidnaviridae) - p. 3017 322. Bunyaviruses of Arthropods (Mypoviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae, Phasmaviridae, Phunuiviridae, Wupedeviridae) - p. 3022 323. Dicistroviruses (Dicistroviridae) - p. 3025 324. Entomobirnaviruses (Birnaviridae) - p. 3030 325. Hytrosaviruses (Hytrosaviridae) - p. 3034 326. Iflaviruses (Iflaviridae) - p. 3038 327. Iridoviruses of Invertebrates (Iridoviridae) - p. 3044 328. Mesoniviruses (Mesoniviridae) - p. 3048 329. Nimaviruses (Nimaviridae) - p. 3051 330. Nodaviruses of Invertebrates and Fish (Nodaviridae) - p. 3060 331. Nudiviruses (Nudiviridae) - p. 3068 332. Parvoviruses of Invertebrates (Parvoviridae) - p. 3072 333. Polydnaviruses (Polydnaviridae) - p. 3087 334. Poxviruses of Insects (Poxviridae) - p. 3089 335. Reoviruses of Invertebrates (Reoviridae) - p. 3101 336. Rhabdoviruses of Insects (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 3108 337. Sarthroviruses (Sarthroviridae) - p. 3110 338. Solinviviruses (Solinviviridae) - p. 3115 339. Tetraviruses (Alphatetraviridae, Carmotetraviridae, Permutotetraviridae) - p. 3122 340. Diagnosis - p. 3128 341. Introduction to Virus Diagnosis and Treatment - p. 3129 342. Electron Microscopy for Viral Diagnosis - p. 3130 343. Serological Approaches for Viral Diagnosis - p. 3137 344. A Brief History of the Development of Diagnostic Molecular-Based Assays - p. 3146 345. Sequencing Strategies - p. 3149 346. Validating Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Assays - p. 3157 347. Rapid Point-of-Care Assays - p. 3162 348. Standardization of Diagnostic Assays - p. 3168 349. Quality Assurance in the Clinical Virology Laboratory - p. 3178 350. Biosafety and Biosecurity in Diagnostic Laboratories - p. 3189 351. Screening for Viral Infections - p. 3200 352. Clinical Diagnostic Virology - p. 3204 353. Virus Diagnosis in Immunosuppressed Individuals - p. 3208 354. Diagnosis; Future Prospects on Direct Diagnosis - p. 3210 355. Treatment - p. 3217 356. Antiviral Classification - p. 3218 357. Antiretroviral Therapy – Nucleoside/Nucleotide and Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors - p. 3224 358. Protease Inhibitors - p. 3227 359. HIV Integrase Inhibitors and Entry Inhibitors - p. 3229 360. Management of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections (Pneumoviridae) - p. 3230 361. Management of Influenza Virus Infections (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 3236 362. Management of Herpes Simplex Virus Infections (Herpesviridae) - p. 3247 363. Management of Varicella-Zoster Virus Infections (Herpesviridae) - p. 3250 364. Treatment and Prevention of Herpesvirus Infections in the Immunocompromised Host - p. 3255 365. Management of Adenovirus Infections (Adenoviridae) - p. 3260 366. Management of Hepatitis A and E Virus Infection - p. 3270 367. Management of Patients With Chronic Hepatitis B (Hepadnaviridae) and Chronic Hepatitis D Infection (Deltavirus) - p. 3278 368. Studying Population Genetic Processes in Viruses: From Drug-Resistance Evolution to Patient Infection Dynamics - p. 3279 369. Virus-Based Cancer Therapeutics - p. 3288 370. Prevention - p. 3296 371. Surveillance of Infectious Diseases - p. 3297 372. Preparing for Emerging Zoonotic Viruses - p. 3305 373. Use of Immunoglobulins in the Prevention of Viral Infections - p. 3319 374. Vaccine Production, Safety, and Efficacy - p. 3337 375. Vaccines Against Viral Gastroenteritis - p. 3345 376. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccines and Their Impact - p. 3349 377. Influenza Vaccination - p. 3351 378. Polio Eradication - p. 3358 379. Subject Index - p. 3362 380. Authors - p. 3450
Encyclopedia of Virology, Fourth Edition, Five Volume Set builds on the solid foundation laid by the previous editions, expanding its reach with new and timely topics. In five volumes, the work provides comprehensive coverage of the whole virosphere, making this a unique resource. Content explores viruses present in the environment and the pathogenic viruses of humans, animals, plants and microorganisms. Key areas and concepts concerning virus classification, structure, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and prevention are discussed, guiding the reader through chapters that are presented at an accessible level, and include further readings for those needing more specific information. More than ever now, with the Covid19 pandemic, we are seeing the huge impact viruses have on our life and society. This encyclopedia is a must-have resource for scientists and practitioners, and a great source of information for the wider public.
1. Antiviral Innate Immunity: Introduction - p. 648 2. Humoral and T Cell-Mediated Immunity to Viruses - p. 655 3. Antigenicity and Antigenic Variation - p. 660 4. Antigen Presentation - p. 666 5. Defense Against Viruses and Other Genetic Parasites in Prokaryotes - p. 669 6. Defective-Interfering Viruses - p. 670 7. Ecology and Global Impacts of Viruses - p. 675 8. The Role of Retroviruses in Cellular Evolution - p. 680 9. The Role of Bacteriophages in Bacterial Evolution - p. 688 10. Viruses and Their Potential for Bioterrorism - p. 703 11. The Use of Viral Promoters in Expression Vectors - p. 713 12. Oncolytic Viruses - p. 724 13. Biotechnology Approaches to Modern Vaccine Design - p. 728 14. Viruses: Impact on Science and Society - p. 740 15. Adenoviruses (Adenoviridae) - p. 750 16. African Horse Sickness Virus (Reoviridae) - p. 755 17. African Swine Fever Virus (Asfarviridae) - p. 759 18. Akabane Virus and Schmallenberg Virus (Peribunyaviridae) - p. 764 19. Alphaviruses Causing Encephalitis (Togaviridae) - p. 771 20. Anelloviruses (Anelloviridae) - p. 782 21. Animal Lentiviruses (Retroviridae) - p. 790 22. Animal Morbilliviruses (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 798 23. Animal Papillomaviruses (Papillomaviridae) - p. 805 24. Astroviruses (Astroviridae) - p. 821 25. Avian Hepadnaviruses (Hepadnaviridae) - p. 830 26. Avian Herpesviruses (Herpesviridae) - p. 838 27. Avian Influenza Viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 844 28. Avian Leukosis and Sarcoma Viruses (Retroviridae) - p. 850 29. Bluetongue Virus (Reoviridae) - p. 855 30. Borna Disease Virus and Related Bornaviruses (Bornaviridae) - p. 860 31. Bovine Leukemia Virus (Retroviridae) - p. 866 32. Bovine Viral Diarrhea, Border Disease, and Classical Swine Fever Viruses (Flaviviridae) - p. 874 33. Capripoxviruses, Parapoxviruses, and Other Poxviruses of Ruminants (Poxviridae) - p. 886 34. Chikungunya Virus (Togaviridae) - p. 894 35. Circoviruses (Circoviridae) - p. 905 36. Coronaviruses: General Features (Coronaviridae) - p. 913 37. Coronaviruses: Molecular Biology (Coronaviridae) - p. 920 38. Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus and Nairoviruses of Medical Importance (Nairoviridae) - p. 931 39. Dengue Viruses (Flaviviridae) - p. 940 40. Ebola Virus (Filoviridae) - p. 957 41. Enteroviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 962 42. Enveloped, Positive-Strand RNA Viruses (Nidovirales) - p. 974 43. Epstein–Barr Virus (Herpesviridae) - p. 981 44. Equine Herpesviruses (Herpesviridae) - p. 994 45. Equine, Canine, and Swine Influenza (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 998 46. Feline Calicivirus (Caliciviridae) - p. 1006 47. Feline Leukemia and Sarcoma Viruses (Retroviridae) - p. 1014 48. Fish and Amphibian Alloherpesviruses (Herpesviridae) - p. 1018 49. Fish Retroviruses (Retroviridae) - p. 1020 50. Fish Rhabdoviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 1032 51. Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1037 52. Fowlpox Virus and Other Avipoxviruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1053 53. Hantaviruses (Hantaviridae) - p. 1058 54. Henipaviruses (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1064 55. Hepatitis A Virus (Picornaviridae) - p. 1071 56. Hepatitis B Virus (Hepadnaviridae) - p. 1076 57. Hepatitis C Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1087 58. Hepeviruses (Hepeviridae) - p. 1100 59. Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2 (Herpesviridae) - p. 1102 60. History of Virology: Vertebrate Viruses - p. 1113 61. Human Boca- and Protoparvoviruses (Parvoviridae) - p. 1117 62. Human Coronavirus-229E, -OC43, -NL63, and -HKU1 (Coronaviridae) - p. 1126 63. Human Cytomegalovirus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1136 64. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (Retroviridae) - p. 1150 65. Human Metapneumovirus (Pneumoviridae) - p. 1164 66. Human Norovirus and Sapovirus (Caliciviridae) - p. 1170 67. Human Papillomaviruses (Papillomaviridae) - p. 1180 68. Human Parainfluenza Viruses (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1190 69. Human Pathogenic Arenaviruses (Arenaviridae) - p. 1195 70. Human Polyomaviruses (Papillomaviridae) - p. 1204 71. Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus-1 and -2 (Retroviridae) - p. 1215 72. Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (Birnaviridae) - p. 1227 73. Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (Birnaviridae) - p. 1233 74. Influenza A Viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 1235 75. Influenza B, C and D Viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 1248 76. Jaagsiekte Sheep Retrovirus (Retroviridae) - p. 1255 77. Japanese Encephalitis Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1267 78. Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1284 79. Marburg and Ravn Viruses (Filoviridae) - p. 1293 80. Measles Virus (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1300 81. Molluscum Contagiosum Virus (Poxviridae) - p. 1312 82. Mumps Virus (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1320 83. Murine Leukemia and Sarcoma Viruses (Retroviridae) - p. 1331 84. Newcastle Disease Virus (Paramyxoviridae) - p. 1337 85. Orthobunyaviruses (Peribunyaviridae) - p. 1344 86. Parapoxviruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1347 87. Parechoviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1356 88. Parvoviruses of Carnivores, and the Emergence of Canine Parvovirus (Parvoviridae) - p. 1365 89. Polioviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1372 90. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus and Equine Arteritis Virus (Arteriviridae) - p. 1379 91. Prions of Vertebrates - p. 1383 92. Pseudorabies Virus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1392 93. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus and European Brown Hare Syndrome Virus (Caliciviridae) - p. 1399 94. Rabbit Myxoma Virus and the Fibroma Viruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1408 95. Rabies and Other Lyssaviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 1416 96. Respiratory Syncytial Virus (Pneumoviridae) - p. 1424 97. Rhinoviruses (Picornaviridae) - p. 1436 98. Rift Valley Fever Virus and Other Phleboviruses (Phenuiviridae) - p. 1442 99. Roseoloviruses: Human Herpesviruses 6A, 6B and 7 (Herpesviridae) - p. 1447 100. Rotaviruses (Reoviridae) - p. 1451 101. Rubella Virus (Picornaviridae) - p. 1459 102. Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1465 103. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) (Coronaviridae) - p. 1476 104. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (Coronaviridae) - p. 1482 105. Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) and HIV-2 (Retroviridae) - p. 1484 106. Sindbis Virus (Togaviridae) - p. 1491 107. Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1498 108. Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus of Pigs and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (Coronaviridae) - p. 1507 109. Vaccinia Virus (Poxviridae) - p. 1511 110. Varicella-Zoster Virus (Herpesviridae) - p. 1517 111. Variola and Monkeypox Viruses (Poxviridae) - p. 1526 112. Vesicular Stomatitis Virus and Bovine Ephemeral Fever Virus (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 1537 113. West Nile Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1548 114. Yellow Fever Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1556 115. Zika Virus (Flaviviridae) - p. 1566 116. An Introduction to Plant Viruses - p. 1581 117. Emerging and Re-Emerging Plant Viruses - p. 1585 118. Emerging Geminiviruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 1594 119. Movement of Viruses in Plants - p. 1609 120. Plant Antiviral Defense: Gene-Silencing Pathways - p. 1621 121. Plant Resistance to Viruses: Engineered Resistance - p. 1631 122. Plant Resistance to Viruses: Natural Resistance Associated With Dominant Genes - p. 1636 123. Plant Resistance to Viruses: Natural Resistance Associated With Recessive Genes - p. 1638 124. Plant Viral Diseases: Economic Implications - p. 1642 125. Retrotransposons of Plants - p. 1643 126. Vector Transmission of Plant Viruses - p. 1652 127. Viral Suppressors of Gene Silencing - p. 1659 128. Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) - p. 1664 129. Alfalfa Mosaic Virus (Bromoviridae) - p. 1671 130. Alphaflexiviruses (Alphaflexiviridae) - p. 1683 131. Alphasatellites (Alphasatellitidae) - p. 1689 132. Amalgaviruses (Amalgaviridae) - p. 1695 133. Badnaviruses (Caulimoviridae) - p. 1698 134. Banana Bunchy Top Virus (Nanoviridae) - p. 1703 135. Barley Yellow Dwarf Viruses (Luteoviridae) - p. 1714 136. Bean Common Mosaic Virus and Bean Common Mosaic Necrosis Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 1720 137. Bean Golden Mosaic Virus and Bean Golden Yellow Mosaic Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 1729 138. Beet Curly Top Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 1738 139. Beet Necrotic Yellow Vein Virus (Benyviridae) - p. 1745 140. Benyviruses (Benyviridae) - p. 1752 141. Betaflexiviruses (Betaflexiviridae) - p. 1757 142. Betasatellites and Deltasatelliles (Tolecusatellitidae) - p. 1762 143. Bluner-, Cile-, and Higreviruses (Kitaviridae) - p. 1771 144. Brome Mosaic Virus (Bromoviridae) - p. 1773 145. Bromoviruses (Bromoviridae) - p. 1782 146. Bymoviruses (Potyviridae) - p. 1783 147. Cacao Swollen Shoot Virus (Caulimoviridae) - p. 1792 148. Carmo-Like Viruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 1801 149. Cassava Brown Streak Viruses (Potyviridae) - p. 1805 150. Cassava Mosaic Viruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 1815 151. Caulimoviruses (Caulimoviridae) - p. 1821 152. Cheraviruses, Sadwaviruses and Torradoviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 1826 153. Citrus Tristeza Virus (Closteroviridae) - p. 1829 154. Closteroviruses (Closteroviridae) - p. 1836 155. Comoviruses and Fabaviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 1844 156. Cotton Leaf Curl Disease (Geminiviridae) - p. 1848 157. Cowpea Mosaic Virus (Secoviridae) - p. 1859 158. Cucumber Mosaic Virus (Bromoviridae) - p. 1868 159. Dianthovirus (Tombusviridae) - p. 1876 160. Endornaviruses (Endornaviridae) - p. 1878 161. Fimoviruses (Fimoviridae) - p. 1886 162. Furoviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 1892 163. Geminiviruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 1895 164. Hordeiviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 1901 165. Idaeoviruses (Mayoviridae) - p. 1912 166. Ilarviruses (Bromoviridae) - p. 1924 167. Luteoviruses (Luteoviridae) - p. 1933 168. Machlomovirus and Panicoviruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 1939 169. Maize Streak Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 1942 170. Nanoviruses (Nanoviridae) - p. 1954 171. Necro-Like Viruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 1965 172. Nepoviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 1971 173. Ophioviruses (Aspiviridae) - p. 1972 174. Orthotospoviruses (Tospoviridae) - p. 1983 175. Ourmiaviruses (Botourmiaviridae) - p. 1985 176. Papaya Ringspot Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 1990 177. Pecluviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 1999 178. Pepino Mosaic Virus (Alphaflexiviridae) - p. 2008 179. Plant Reoviruses (Reoviridae) - p. 2016 180. Plant Resistance to Geminiviruses - p. 2022 181. Plant Rhabdoviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 2034 182. Plant Satellite Viruses (Albetovirus, Aumaivirus, Papanivirus, Virtovirus) - p. 2036 183. Plum Pox Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 2038 184. Poleroviruses (Luteoviridae) - p. 2048 185. Pomoviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2054 186. Potato Virus Y (Potyviridae) - p. 2063 187. Potexviruses (Alphaflexiviridae) - p. 2074 188. Potyviruses (Potyviridae) - p. 2081 189. Quinviruses (Betaflexiviridae) - p. 2088 190. Reverse-Transcribing Viruses (Belpaoviridae, Metaviridae, and Pseudoviridae) - p. 2098 191. Rice Tungro Disease (Secoviridae, Caulimoviridae) - p. 2105 192. Rice Yellow Mottle Virus (Solemoviridae) - p. 2117 193. Satellite Nucleic Acids and Viruses - p. 2124 194. Secoviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 2126 195. Sequiviruses and Waikaviruses (Secoviridae) - p. 2134 196. Solemoviruses (Solemoviridae) - p. 2142 197. Tenuiviruses (Phenuiviridae) - p. 2151 198. Tobacco Mosaic Virus (Virgaviridae) - p. 2158 199. Tobamoviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2166 200. Tobraviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2168 201. Tomato Leaf Curl New Delhi Virus (Geminiviridae) - p. 2176 202. Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (Tospoviridae) - p. 2184 203. Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Viruses (Geminiviridae) - p. 2193 204. Tombusvirus-Like Viruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 2198 205. Tombusviruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 2212 206. Tritimoviruses and Rymoviruses (Potyviridae) - p. 2217 207. Triviruses (Betaflexiviridae) - p. 2222 208. Tymoviruses (Tymoviridae) - p. 2232 209. Umbraviruses (Tombusviridae) - p. 2236 210. Varicosaviruses (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 2243 211. Virgaviruses (Virgaviridae) - p. 2252 212. Viroids (Pospiviroidae and Avsunviroidae) - p. 2257 213. Watermelon Mosaic Virus and Zucchini Yellow Mosaic Virus (Potyviridae) - p. 2263 214. Abstract - p. 2263 215. Glossary - p. 2263 216. History and Taxonomy - p. 2263 217. Classification - p. 2263 218. Symptomatology - p. 2264 219. Synergism and Antagonism - p. 2264 220. Geographic Distribution - p. 2264 221. Host Range - p. 2265 222. Diagnostic Methods - p. 2265 223. Vector Relationships - p. 2265 224. Epidemiology - p. 2265 225. Control Methods - p. 2266 226. Variability - p. 2267 227. Genetics and Evolution - p. 2268 228. Biotechnological Application - p. 2268 229. Further Reading - p. 2268 230. Bacterial Viruses - p. 2276 231. History of Virology: Bacteriophages - p. 2277 232. Icosahedral Phages – Single-Stranded DNA (φX174) - p. 2283 233. Single-Stranded RNA Bacterial Viruses - p. 2296 234. Enveloped Icosahedral Phages – Double-Stranded RNA (φ6) - p. 2304 235. Membrane-Containing Icosahedral DNA Bacteriophages - p. 2311 236. Tailed Double-Stranded DNA Phages - p. 2319 237. Helical and Filamentous Phages - p. 2323 238. Replication of Bacillus Double-Stranded DNA Bacteriophages - p. 2333 239. Lytic Transcription - p. 2338 240. Lysogeny - p. 2348 241. Decision Making by Temperate Phages - p. 2360 242. Mobilization of Phage Satellites - p. 2376 243. Portal Vertex - p. 2385 244. Prohead, the Head Shell Pre-Cursor - p. 2390 245. Enzymology of Viral DNA Packaging Machines - p. 2398 246. DNA Packaging: DNA Recognition - p. 2415 247. DNA Packaging: The Translocation Motor - p. 2430 248. Biophysics of DNA Packaging - p. 2447 249. Energetics of the DNA-Filled Head - p. 2456 250. Bacteriophage Receptor Proteins of Gram-Negative Bacteria - p. 2466 251. Tail Structure and Dynamics - p. 2469 252. Bacteriophage Tail Fibres, Tailspikes, and Bacterial Receptor Interaction - p. 2480 253. Phage Genome and Protein Ejection In Vivo - p. 2496 254. Dealing With the Whole Head: Diversity and Function of Capsid Ejection Proteins in Tailed Phages - p. 2514 255. Jumbo Phages - p. 2526 256. CRISPR-Cas Systems and Anti-CRISPR Proteins: Adaptive Defense and Counter-Defense in Prokaryotes and Their Viruses - p. 2531 257. Bacteriophage: Therapeutics and Diagnostics Development - p. 2535 258. Bacteriophage Vaccines - p. 2540 259. Bacteriophage Diversity - p. 2548 260. Genetic Mosaicism in the Tailed Double-Stranded DNA Phages - p. 2560 261. Bacteriophages of the Human Microbiome - p. 2567 262. Bacteriophage: Red Recombination System and the Development of Recombineering Technologies - p. 2579 263. Nanotechnology Application of Bacteriophage DNA Packaging Nanomotors - p. 2593 264. General Ecology of Bacteriophages - p. 2608 265. Marine Bacteriophages - p. 2618 266. Ecology of Phages in Extreme Environments - p. 2634 267. Archaeal Viruses - p. 2643 268. Diversity of Hyperthermophilic Archaeal Viruses - p. 2644 269. Euryarchaeal Viruses - p. 2650 270. Vesicle-Like Archaeal Viruses - p. 2658 271. Virus–Host Interactions in Archaea - p. 2663 272. Antiviral Defense Mechanisms in Archaea - p. 2676 273. Discovery of Archaeal Viruses in Hot Spring Environments Using Viral Metagenomics - p. 2686 274. Metagenomes of Archaeal Viruses in Hypersaline Environments - p. 2693 275. Extreme Environments as a Model System to Study How Virus–Host Interactions Evolve Along the Symbiosis Continuum - p. 2699 276. Fungal Viruses - p. 2714 277. An Introduction to Fungal Viruses - p. 2715 278. Cross-Kingdom Virus Infection - p. 2718 279. Diversity of Mycoviruses in Aspergilli - p. 2726 280. Evolution of Mycoviruses - p. 2730 281. Mixed Infections of Mycoviruses in Phytopathogenic Fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum - p. 2734 282. Mycovirus-Mediated Biological Control - p. 2737 283. Mycoviruses With Filamentous Particles - p. 2741 284. Prions of Yeast and Fungi - p. 2746 285. Single-Stranded DNA Mycoviruses - p. 2750 286. Structure of Double-Stranded RNA Mycoviruses - p. 2766 287. Ustilago maydis Viruses and Their Killer Toxins - p. 2778 288. Vegetative Incompatibility in Filamentous Fungi - p. 2787 289. Viral Diseases of Agaricus bisporus, the Button Mushroom - p. 2797 290. Viral Killer Toxins - p. 2801 291. Alternaviruses (Unassigned) - p. 2809 292. Barnaviruses (Barnaviridae) - p. 2810 293. Botybirnaviruses (Botybirnavirus) - p. 2816 294. Chrysoviruses (Chrysoviridae) - General Features and Chrysovirus-Related Viruses - p. 2821 295. Fungal Partitiviruses (Partitiviridae) - p. 2830 296. Fusariviruses (Unassigned) - p. 2837 297. Giardiavirus (Totiviridae) - p. 2840 298. Hypoviruses (Hypoviridae) - p. 2847 299. Megabirnaviruses (Megabirnaviridae) - p. 2854 300. Mitoviruses (Mitoviridae) - p. 2864 301. Mycoreoviruses (Reoviridae) - p. 2871 302. Mymonaviruses (Mymonaviridae) - p. 2881 303. Narnaviruses (Narnaviridae) - p. 2886 304. Phlegiviruses (Unassigned) - p. 2895 305. Plant and Protozoal Partitiviruses (Partitiviridae) - p. 2902 306. Quadriviruses (Quadriviridae) - p. 2912 307. Totiviruses (Totiviridae) - p. 2922 308. Yado-kari Virus 1 and Yado-nushi Virus 1 (Unassigned) - p. 2938 309. Yeast L-A Virus (Totiviridae) - p. 2947 310. Algal Viruses - p. 2955 311. Algal Marnaviruses (Marnaviridae) - p. 2956 312. Algal Mimiviruses (Mimiviridae) - p. 2957 313. Miscellaneous Algal Viruses (Alvernaviridae, Bacilladnaviridae, Dinodnavirus, Reoviridae) - p. 2960 314. Phycodnaviruses (Phycodnaviridae) - p. 2965 315. Invertebrate Viruses - p. 2968 316. An Introduction to Viruses of Invertebrates - p. 2969 317. Ascoviruses (Ascoviridae) - p. 2986 318. Baculovirus–Host Interactions: Repurposing Host-Acquired Genes (Baculoviridae) - p. 2991 319. Baculoviruses: General Features (Baculoviridae) - p. 2998 320. Baculoviruses: Molecular Biology and Replication (Baculoviridae) - p. 3008 321. Bidensoviruses (Bidnaviridae) - p. 3017 322. Bunyaviruses of Arthropods (Mypoviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae, Phasmaviridae, Phunuiviridae, Wupedeviridae) - p. 3022 323. Dicistroviruses (Dicistroviridae) - p. 3025 324. Entomobirnaviruses (Birnaviridae) - p. 3030 325. Hytrosaviruses (Hytrosaviridae) - p. 3034 326. Iflaviruses (Iflaviridae) - p. 3038 327. Iridoviruses of Invertebrates (Iridoviridae) - p. 3044 328. Mesoniviruses (Mesoniviridae) - p. 3048 329. Nimaviruses (Nimaviridae) - p. 3051 330. Nodaviruses of Invertebrates and Fish (Nodaviridae) - p. 3060 331. Nudiviruses (Nudiviridae) - p. 3068 332. Parvoviruses of Invertebrates (Parvoviridae) - p. 3072 333. Polydnaviruses (Polydnaviridae) - p. 3087 334. Poxviruses of Insects (Poxviridae) - p. 3089 335. Reoviruses of Invertebrates (Reoviridae) - p. 3101 336. Rhabdoviruses of Insects (Rhabdoviridae) - p. 3108 337. Sarthroviruses (Sarthroviridae) - p. 3110 338. Solinviviruses (Solinviviridae) - p. 3115 339. Tetraviruses (Alphatetraviridae, Carmotetraviridae, Permutotetraviridae) - p. 3122 340. Diagnosis - p. 3128 341. Introduction to Virus Diagnosis and Treatment - p. 3129 342. Electron Microscopy for Viral Diagnosis - p. 3130 343. Serological Approaches for Viral Diagnosis - p. 3137 344. A Brief History of the Development of Diagnostic Molecular-Based Assays - p. 3146 345. Sequencing Strategies - p. 3149 346. Validating Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Assays - p. 3157 347. Rapid Point-of-Care Assays - p. 3162 348. Standardization of Diagnostic Assays - p. 3168 349. Quality Assurance in the Clinical Virology Laboratory - p. 3178 350. Biosafety and Biosecurity in Diagnostic Laboratories - p. 3189 351. Screening for Viral Infections - p. 3200 352. Clinical Diagnostic Virology - p. 3204 353. Virus Diagnosis in Immunosuppressed Individuals - p. 3208 354. Diagnosis; Future Prospects on Direct Diagnosis - p. 3210 355. Treatment - p. 3217 356. Antiviral Classification - p. 3218 357. Antiretroviral Therapy – Nucleoside/Nucleotide and Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors - p. 3224 358. Protease Inhibitors - p. 3227 359. HIV Integrase Inhibitors and Entry Inhibitors - p. 3229 360. Management of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections (Pneumoviridae) - p. 3230 361. Management of Influenza Virus Infections (Orthomyxoviridae) - p. 3236 362. Management of Herpes Simplex Virus Infections (Herpesviridae) - p. 3247 363. Management of Varicella-Zoster Virus Infections (Herpesviridae) - p. 3250 364. Treatment and Prevention of Herpesvirus Infections in the Immunocompromised Host - p. 3255 365. Management of Adenovirus Infections (Adenoviridae) - p. 3260 366. Management of Hepatitis A and E Virus Infection - p. 3270 367. Management of Patients With Chronic Hepatitis B (Hepadnaviridae) and Chronic Hepatitis D Infection (Deltavirus) - p. 3278 368. Studying Population Genetic Processes in Viruses: From Drug-Resistance Evolution to Patient Infection Dynamics - p. 3279 369. Virus-Based Cancer Therapeutics - p. 3288 370. Prevention - p. 3296 371. Surveillance of Infectious Diseases - p. 3297 372. Preparing for Emerging Zoonotic Viruses - p. 3305 373. Use of Immunoglobulins in the Prevention of Viral Infections - p. 3319 374. Vaccine Production, Safety, and Efficacy - p. 3337 375. Vaccines Against Viral Gastroenteritis - p. 3345 376. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccines and Their Impact - p. 3349 377. Influenza Vaccination - p. 3351 378. Polio Eradication - p. 3358 379. Subject Index - p. 3362 380. Authors - p. 3450
